Essay on Willy Loman in Death of a Salesman and Amanda in Glass Menage

The Characters of Willy in Death of a Salesman and Amanda in Glass Menagerie In Death of a Salesman, Willy Loman believes the ticket to success is likeability. He tells his sons, The man who makes an appearance in the business world, the man who creates personal interest, is the man who gets ahead. In The Glass Menagerie, Amanda Wingfield has the same belief. Girls be meant to be attractive and they are meant to be attractive in order to entertain gentlemen callers. As she tells Laura, All charming girls are a trap, a pretty trap, and men expect them to be (1048). It is this very belief that both Amanda and Willy try to ingrain in their children and it is this emphasis on likeability that makes the characters of Amanda Wingfield and Willy Loman so unlikable. A major element of the readers animosity towards Willy stems from his responsibility for the ruin of his sons. Willys affair ends up being the reason that Biff ends up a high-school failure and a football has-been. This blun der both disheartens and destroys his eldest son. It becomes the reason Biff refuses to go to summer school it becomes the reason that Biff leaves home. Yet, this is all a result of Willys need to be likeable. He cheats on his doting wife simply because it makes him feel special, because it gives him proof that women other that Linda are interested in him, because it makes him feel well liked. A woman picked him a woman laughs when he makes jokes about keeping pores open a woman pays him some attention (38). In fact, it is Willys emphasis on likeability that leads Biff to brush aside his grooming in the first place. Bernard, the friend next-door who begs Biff to study for the Reagents, is described by Willy as a... ...something she discovered was useless. They both put emphasis on something that had brought them nothing tho pain and suffering and it is this entrapment that makes Amanda and Willy most unlikable. Rather than learning from their mistakes and teaching their childre n to avoid making the same ones, Amanda and Willy lead their children down the same passage to failure, a path that Amanda found to have a dead end, a path to which Willy found no end at all. Works CitedMiller, Arthur. Death of a Salesman. Literature An instauration to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Seventh Edition. X.J. Kennedy, and Dana Gioia. New York Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., 1999. 1636-1707. Williams, Tennessee. The Glass Menagerie. In Literature An Introduction to Reading and Writing, 4th ed. Ed. Edgar V. Roberts and Henry E. Jacobs. Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice Hall, 1995. 1519-1568.

Education: Empiricists vs Rationalists Essay example -- philosophy of

The importance of have a go at it in education has always been the subject of philosophical debates. These debates between empiricists and rationalists have been going on for quite some time. Rationalists argon of the view that knowledge acquired through senses is unreliable and learning can only be done through reasoning. On the otherwise hand, empiricists believe knowledge is acquired through empirical impressions and concepts that cannot be learnt without being experienced (Evans, 1992, p. 35). This debate was however resolved by Kant who argues that both experience and rationality are necessary in learning. John Dewey was an American philosopher of the twentieth century and he also contributed to the debate on the learning process. In his book Experience and Education, Dewey (1938), he stated, the belief that all genuine education comes about through experience does not mean that all experiences are genuinely or equally informative (p. 25). This famous quote has been evaluated and referred to regularly in the debate on learning through experience. agree to Dewey (1938) experiences can only be termed as educative if they path to further intellectual and moral growth. In order for experience to be termed as educative, both the community and the individual have to benefit from the said experience. The experience has to contribute to growth in curiosity, sense of purpose, and initiative in the disciple. He was of the view that traditional education was hierarchical and therefore undemocratic in nature. According to him, in order to produce well informed, thoughtful and democratic students, learners need to participate in all aspects of the civilize program and gain the experience. Eventually, a learner has to reflect on the experience ... ...work became widely accepted. However, his philosophy will continue to earn critical acclaim even in the coming days. Works CitedBoud, D., Keogh, R., & Walker, D. (1985). criticism Turning experience into learning. N ew York, NY Kogan Page.Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York, NY Macmillan.Evans, N. (1992). Experiential learning Assessment and accreditation. New York, NY Routledge.Ewert, A. (1989). Outdoor adventure pursuits Foundations, models, and theories. Columbus, OH Publishing Horizons.Goodlad, J. (1984). A place called school Prospects for the future. New York, NY McGraw-Hill.Kolb, A. (1984). Experiential learning Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice Hall.Lewin, K. (1952). Field theory in the social sciences Selected theoretical papers. capital of the United Kingdom Tavistock.

The Life of the Governess Rebecca Sharp :: Victorian Era

The Life of the Governess void Fair Sets the StageIf Miss Rebecca Sharp had determined in her heart upon making the victory of this big beau, I dont think, ladies, we have any right to blame her (Thackery 27). The narrator of Vanity Fair encourages readers not to blame Rebecca Sharp for being determined to derive Joseph Sedleys attentions and proposal in only ten days After all, the narrator reminds us that she was motherless, and thus had no one to help her secure a husband. Yet, members of Vanity Fair rebuke Miss Sharp for her assertive efforts. Perhaps, though, one should sympathize and applaud Miss Sharps labors because her destination after ten days was the life of a governess.A Governess-A DefinitionThe position of a governess required that one act as a companion for her charges and teach them the accomplishments that would enable them to compete effectively in society The required accomplishments were still one or two languages, preferably French and Italian, music, dancing, drawing and needlework The eventual aim was the best possible marriage.--Alice Renton, 48The governess was even often the heroine for writers focusing on domestic, educational and social issues (The twee Governess). Yet, author and former governess Charlotte Bront wrote, it was better to be a housemaid or kitchen girl, instead than a baited, trampled, desolate, distracted governess (Damrosch 1524). And Anna Jameson wrote, a woman who knows anything in the world would, if the choice be left to her, be anything in the world rather than be a governess (Renton 59).Why the Negativity Regarding a Governess?As the cries of these governesses allude, life as a governess was not always glamorous, despite the literary regard. A governess who was capable of teaching more than than the usual subjects was generally little valued (Renton 50). The pay a governess received often reflected the small value. Her wages could be as low as octette pounds a year Charlotte Bront received twenty pounds per year (actually only sixteen since washing expenses were deducted at the source) (Allingham). Perhaps the Quarterly Review best put the knowledgeableness of being a governess in perspective when the following was published, a being who is our equal in birth, manners, and education, but our inferior in worldly wealth (Renton 96). Thus, governesses class-conscious with the superior servants (Altick 56) and ended up feeling broken and lonely as Jameson described (Renton 59).So Where Did Becky Fit In?Becky was obviously not the typical Victorian governess.

Planck V. Indiana :: essays research papers

Planck v. Indiana     In the reviewing the case of Planck v. Indiana, many complicated issuesarise. Included in those, individual rights hostile with the public goodare among the most difficult. According to Mr and Mrs. Plancks attorney, JohnPrice, the Plancks religious beliefs prohibit them from accepting professionalmedicament practice, as they practice alternative medicine and home school theirchildren. After a complaint from an older Planck daughter, who did not embraceor respect her familys lifestyle, the state was called in to investigate thehealth of the Planck children. In a preliminary check by the state of Indianafor eyesight, Lance Planck was found not to be in need of any service. Despitethis finding, the capital of Wisconsin County Superior Court ordered that all of the Planckschildrens eyes be examined by the state. One month after the Court orderedthis, twenty armed officers with guns pinched came to the Plancks residence andcommanded Mr. and Mrs . Planck to give up their children. Mr. Planck told theofficers that he did not know why they were there, was pushed to the ground andhad fill up rifles pointed at him. The children were then forcibly removed fromtheir parents custody, and at no time was any identification shown by theofficers. Curt, Lance Plancks younger brother, resisted this removal from hishouse, and was threatened by an officer that he would be "dragged out of here."After this scene, Emily, Stephen, and Curtis Planck were loaded into a van anddriven to an eye doctor in Anderson, Indiana. The examining doctor, Dr. JosephWoschitz, came to the conclusion that no treatment was needed for any of thechildren. How can the state justify this vitrine of behavior? Is ripping a childunwillingly from his mothers arms in the best interest of the public good?What does society have to benefit from this? In short, this does not affect thepublic good per se, but does affect the Plancks and any other family thatpractic es a religion that is not widely accepted.     Following the above events, Mr. and Mrs. Planck were later onarrested, had their First Amendment rights violated, and had their home invadedby armed SWAT team members who fired a CS tear gas canister into their house.Simply, Mr. and Mrs. Planck and their children were targeted by the stateselectively because of their religious beliefs which they manifested in homeeducation and the practice of alternative medicine. The fundamental argumenthere is that the Plancks rights have been violated, and the State of Indianahas overstepped its duty of caring for the Plancks children.

Bill Gates :: Biography Technology Computers Essays

Bill GatesBill Gates is the Antichrist Ever since Microsoft was founded, Bill Gates has gained power over the wad of the innovation by winning a monopoly in the computer-software industry. From the assistance Microsoft gave in the development of the personal computer, to the virtual monopoly that Windows 95 now has on most computers all over the world Microsoft has controlled a major portion of the computer industry. In his repeated conquests over his competitors, Gates has left an increasingly obvious amount of evidence that proves that he is the quarter and final antichrist. Most of this evidence comes from Gates computer products and is referred to in Revelations. This evidence may have been left on purpose, or was a careless mistake by the founder of Microsoft. Like the other men who have been considered antichrists, Gates has attempted to determine the world. The only difference between Gates and his predecessors is that he is trying to rule the world through and through com puters, not through military force. ASCII(American Standard Code for Information Interchange) code is a system of keeping track of letters, numbers and characters on a computer. When Bill Gates and IBM decided to use ASCII code in the IBM Personal Computer, many people didnt know what computers were, or care what ASCII code was. many a(prenominal) people who did know what ASCII code was didnt think that Bill Gates was evil. Today, now that more people use computers regularly, Bill Gates evil secrets have been revealed to the public through the Internet and anti-Microsoft activists. Here is wisdom. Let him who has understanding calculate the number of the beast, for it is the number of a man His number is 666. (Revelation 1318) Bill Gates full name is William total heat Gates III. If the ASCII codes of the letters in BILLGATES are added, plus three for the III in his name, then the sum is 666 (antichrist.txt). B I L L G A T E S 3 66 73 76 76 71 65 84 69 83 3 = 666 Let him who has understanding calculate the number of the beast refers to computer programmers and others who have knowledge in computers. Gates most likely did not expect for the people in his industry to divulge his secret identity to the public, but an increasing number of computer users have found and advertised the truth about him.

Crime Prevention Essay -- essays research papers

Kids Being Charged with FeloniesA felony is a crime in which the convicted may receive more than a year in prison for their actions. The paper that you are about to read is going to explore somewhat of the issues about kids being charged with felonies. We will also establish some of the issues of how this is portrayed in our news media today. Furthermore, I will offer my opinion, on how kids being charged with felonies could be a positive step in the right direction. It is real that in America today we have asked our kids to grow up at an alarming rate. There has been no other time in history that children are asked to be mature enough to handle adult situations with regularity. Many of the past generations dependable did what their parents told them to do. Mow the lawn, clean their bedroom, and maybe some home plate chores and so on. In todays society were asking our youth to watch their younger siblings. We also ask them to use potentially knockout technology at a mature lev el. Keep in mind that some adults cant even use technology responsibly Since we involve them to grow up quickly we have to expect that they are going to make adult mistakes especially with the actual maturity level. Is it safe to say that some kids do something that wasnt meant to be so harmful, and as it would turn out be so detrimental to their lives? When they do make a mistake should we obtain them adult punishments? I start in Atlanta, Georgia where ii girls baked a cake with glue in the batter and fed it to their fellow classmates. The two thirteen yr. old girls could be charged with up to twelve counts of assault. (CNN 11-19-04) It is situations like this were two girls could be in incarcerate for a long time just because they were trying to pull off a prank. In Santee, California Charles Andre Williams, a student that was made fun of on a frequent basis brings a gun to school and gets off thirty rounds. The result was a death of another student. Williams had told several people the weekend before including an adult that he was be after to kill someone at school, but no one took him seriously. (CNN 3-8-2001) Again we ask students to make mature decisions, but it isnt what we had in mind. The number of stories goes on and on including the King brothers who killed... ... juveniles. Hopefully someday we will come up with a positive solution that works. Until that day we can only hope that the debauched maturing children of the world will mature enough to understand that nobody can just do whatever they want. There will always be consequences. deferred paymentLegon, Jeordan Student hacks school, erases class filesCNN-6/11/2003Girls charged over sickening cakeCNN-11/19/2004An epidemic of violenceCNN-3/8/2001King Brothers get reduced jail sentencesCNN-11/14/2002School Shooting suspect to face attempted murder chargeCNN-3/23/2001

Crime Prevention Essay -- essays research papers

Kids Being Charged with FeloniesA felony is a crime in which the convicted may suffer more than a year in prison for their actions. The paper that you are about to read is going to explore some of the issues about kids being supercharged with felonies. We pull up stakes also examine some of the issues of how this is portrayed in our news media today. Furthermore, I will offer my opinion, on how kids being charged with felonies could be a positive step in the right direction. It is real that in America today we have strikeed our kids to grow up at an alarming rate. There has been no other time in history that children are asked to be mature enough to handle adult situations with regularity. Many of the past generations just did what their parents told them to do. Mow the lawn, clean-living their bedroom, and maybe some ho habithold chores and so on. In todays society were asking our youth to watch their younger siblings. We also ask them to use potentially dangerous technology a t a mature level. Keep in mind that some adults do-nothingt even use technology responsibly Since we want them to grow up quickly we have to expect that they are going to stag adult mistakes especially with the actual matureness level. Is it safe to say that some kids do something that wasnt meant to be so harmful, and as it would turn out be so detrimental to their lives? When they do make a mistake should we give them adult punishments? I start in Atlanta, Georgia where two girls baked a cake with glue in the striker and fed it to their fellow classmates. The two thirteen yr. old girls could be charged with up to twelve counts of assault. (CNN 11-19-04) It is situations like this were two girls could be in jail for a long time just because they were trying to pull off a prank. In Santee, California Charles Andre Williams, a student that was made fun of on a frequent basis brings a gun to school and gets off thirty rounds. The result was a death of another student. Williams had told several people the weekend originally including an adult that he was planning to kill someone at school, but no one took him seriously. (CNN 3-8-2001) Again we ask students to make mature decisions, but it isnt what we had in mind. The number of stories goes on and on including the fagot brothers who killed... ... juveniles. Hopefully someday we will come up with a positive solution that works. Until that day we can only hope that the fast maturing children of the world will mature enough to understand that nobody can just do whatever they want. There will always be consequences.ReferenceLegon, Jeordan Student hacks school, erases class filesCNN-6/11/2003Girls charged over sickening cakeCNN-11/19/2004An epidemic of violenceCNN-3/8/2001King Brothers get reduced jail sentencesCNN-11/14/2002School Shooting suspect to face attempted murder chargeCNN-3/23/2001

Political Identity

Political Identity can be referred to the collective aspect of the set of characteristics by which a political party of your cream is recognizable or k straight offn. Politics exists all slightly the world whether it involves the government, religion, debates, events, or individuals in general. It can be quite difficult to determine ones Political Identity as this consists of various concepts. I am a follower of the Liberal caller of Ontario which is aligned with the Canadian Liberal company. The following attempt will be discussing the influences that perplex impacted me in order to create my own Political Identity.Politics consists of three distinctive categories such as, the Conservative Party, the Liberal Party and the New Democratic Party. The Liberal Party generally stands between the view points of both the Conservative Party and the New Democratic Party. This party has formed the organization of Ontario since the year 2003. The Liberal Party is extremely open to embracin g changes and creating opportunities for individuals in our modern world. As in individual, I escape to follow a lay path in which I consider both sides of the decisions I make.I am also quite open to learning newer concepts and I have the ability to suit to any changes that my arise. Thus I hope that my Political Identity lies with the Liberal Party as my actions can relate to the ones made by this party. As a child, I was unable to understand the concept of politics, though I was taught to support the Liberals. so far now that I have matured, I have discovered why many individuals choose to support the Liberals, as opposed to the other political parties. Due to the positive attitude towards change, the Liberal Party is the reason why Canada is seen as such a multicultural country.The Liberal Party has helped changed the lives of many individuals that had been living an unfortunate life. If it were not for the Liberals, I would not be in such a well developed country. My paren ts had not been blessed with such a pleasant life. They had came across many hardships in life and hoped that their children would not experience such a life. Throughout the 1970s, the Liberal Party granted permission for the Ismaili Muslims from Africa to enter Canada, in order to have a better lifestyle. This is when my parents fled from East Africa and entered Canada.Migrating to Canada has had a vast positive impact on their lives, along with the lives of many others. Hence my family and friends have been voting for the Liberal Party for many years. This has impacted my Political Identity by a whole lot. There are many factors which contri just nowed to the choice of my Political Identity Living in a society in which immigrants from all around the world are present, has assisted in shaping my Political Identity. While attending school, I am exposed to a variety of races. Therefore schools tend to enforce Liberalism as well.Due to this, many students choose to follow the Liberal Party. Not only do I follow the Liberals because I such a society, but also because the Liberals have give individuals the freedom of their choice. During the past, the women of Ontario were not granted the permission to abort their children. If one chose to give up her baby, she was to cross the border to fulfill her desire. However the Liberals brought a change in which a woman is free to act upon her choice. Also, same- sex activity marriages were not permitted at any costs.Yet recently, by law, individuals are allowed to wed any sex of their choice without being ridiculed. Although these acts may have seemed immoral in the past, they have come to be accepted by our society. I too feel that individuals should have the right of freedom when it comes to choosing what is best for their lifestyle. Thus I support the decisions the Liberals have chose to create based on our modern society. Overall, I believe that the Liberal Party is an exceptional party that has performed many chang es that have been beneficially for many individuals.Although I felt compelled to support the Liberals because my family supported them, as a matured person, I now feel that the Liberal Party is worth supporting because not only has it assisted my the members of community, it has also assisted people from around the world. This party has also given individuals the right of freedom in order act upon their desire. Though it has limitations, the Liberal Party strives to strengthen its economy and create opportunities for its people. As a person, I believe it is important to accept change and keep oneself open to new opportunities. Therefore my Political Identity can be recognized as a Liberal.

The Far Horizon convention centre

1.0 IntroductionThe 4 Ps of marketing ar in more than hotshot way interdependent. They together help customers in making purchase decisions. If planned properly, 4Ps can also help companies identify the right segment of customers.A product must satisfy a consumers need. It comes with a cost. Production costs must be kept in check and at the same time graphic symbol should not be compromised on. A brand must keep its consumers interest in mind always.Price is next. Price escalation piles place when a product moves by the distribution channel. A manufacturers selling price becomes a distributors cost price. This hurts dealers who end up paying more to the distributor. Ultimately, this affects competition and sales. This escalation in prices forces umteen consumers to look elsewhere. in that location are many strategies employed by companies to beat competition. thither are some who find it hard to offer at reduced price because of brand. There are others who reduce their price in the face of stiff competition. Then there are those who, while retaining their image, launch products that are branded but return a different segment of demographic. Thus, price plays an important role in a consumers behaviour. Place can also determine price. Factors like who the concluding consumer pull up stakes be and what he or she looks for must be considered. Where does a consumer look for in a convention centre? Are the major involve of the client met by the infrastructure available? Distance is also considered to be an issue that determines choice. No client would think of going beyond his/her convenience to guard a hall. Distances also determine transportation costs, which could cause price escalation for the client. Distribution gets affected, and time and money is lost. So, choice of place is also important.Promotion relates to publicity. Promotion can take many forms advertising in various media, events, press releases, trade shows, brochures, flyers, internet an d so on. This is where a company focuses on projecting itself and its product. Promotion creates awareness, the first quantity to sales.Thus, branding and 4Ps play a vital role in consumer buying rationale (Volker.M, 1998).2.0 AnalysisIn any business the marketing environment, production costs, logistics, distributor/dealer brink and the manufacturers margin are considered before a product is priced to the consumer. All these are directly bendd by the 4 Ps of marketing. out-of-the-way(prenominal) Horizon, a well structured organisation is in the process of expanding its activities to incorporate a convention hall that can accommodate 850 people in a bingle sitting a first of its kind in that community.Far Horizon already has a full-fledged catering wing that is operational and serves breakfast, lunch and dinner to the local anesthetic inhabitants. The idea of the proprietorship organisation is to project Far Horizon as a one-stop solution for any activity like weddings, busines s meetings, conferences, trade shows and so on. Once the convention centre becomes fully operational, it will enjoy complete ascendancy in business against a rather tame competition. However, there are factors that can determine the success of a business in any environment the factor of the 4 Ps.Product StrategyIdentify three factors that influence product strategy decisions Size, Facilities, and Availability. The sizing of the convention centre will be bigger than any existing hall available in the community, and can cater to any kind of programme. The approachability of a full-fledged restaurant and bar makes food and beverage ordering convenient, without requiring external catering servicings. The hall is large enough to accommodate any outcome of people in one sitting and its availability round the year will make it a in truth attractive proposition to time-conscious customers.Place StrategyIdentify three factors that influence place strategy decisions Proximity, Location, an d Connectivity. Far Horizon is located close to the airport and is thus a little far from the commercial hub of the community. However, because of its existing restaurant and bar, it has its shell out of regular customers, for whom distance may not be an issue. The idea to tie-up with the local transport authorities may be short-sighted, but customers who require large halls with more facilities will be inclined to travel a little more to minimize responsibilities.Promotion StrategyIdentify three factors that influence promotion strategy decisions Word-of-mouth communication, events and media presentations. Far Horizon will get that distinct advantage that its competitors lacked from their regular customers. Customers feedback is a sound way to project an organisation for its products or service. How many times have one seen friends influence the buying behaviour of others. The same principle applies in this case too. Events taking place at such venues as Far Horizon will attract immediate attention, because it is located close to the airport for one, and because many people visit this place for refreshments or drinks frequently. Media advertisements are very convenient to attract those people who have never ventured to Far Horizon previously. The sparsely populated community will get to know a freshet more through media coverage.Pricing StrategyIdentify three factors that influence pricing strategy decisions Logistics, Quality and Quantity. Far Horizon will beat competition through its sheer size of it and facilities. None of its competitors come close enough to even challenge it for its facilities. Because it is close to the airport, the convention centre can attract outsiders to it instantly. The price for organizing shows, events, weddings, conferences are minimized because of its tidy sum of intake. The logic behind such a move to make a big hall is to minimize prices through volume sales. Catering costs will come down drastically as well, and so too would the cost of beverages. Far Horizon will be able to capitalise on the service of space, food and beverages. The client will benefit immensely enjoy better facilities at lower costs and maintenance.3.0 ReferenceVolker.M, Business basics for Engineers, Marketing & 4Ps of Marketing, www.sfu.ca, Referenced on 09.05.2007

Portfolio Tasks Architecture History

Cam McBride History Reflect on your understanding of the concept of narration. Has this changed in the startle three weeks of the course? If so, how? If not, how did you come to your present understanding of how history works? Discuss at least two of the following cultural change the Great Men possibility of history historicism and historical materialism History is all around us, everywhere every moment in era can be documented as a piece of history. This does not amount to how small the action was, or how eagle-eyed it took, it is all history.The niftyer the effect on a race or culture the longer the moment stays with us and is documented finished time. This is called Historicism. For example one of the major moments in the last 10 years would be 9/1 1 although this did not affect us directly the amount of information and documentation of this event was vast, branching out to all nations. How long will this moment last in history books will they remember this moment in 100 yea rs? Will it stand the test of time?Something on a smaller scale may last longer, like inventions things we subdued use to this day are a constant reminder of their history and where they came from. All race have a diametric timeline on history, some will gather information and not find it necessary or important, it hasnt touch them so it is not a major event in history for them. For example the Christopher earthquake is a huge moment in history for us it has changed our lives and things will never be the same, but for someone in Denmark, the other side of the world, this is an almost irrelevant happening and a miniscule piece of information.They capacity have seen a 2-minute clip on the news and this piece of history will not stay with them. Therefore history is our own little inline of sizeableness although we may have the same events, they occur in different orders and rankings depending on the culture that surrounds you. There may even be a completely different timeline fo r someone else. None of it matters because history is what is relevant to you. History is usually confined to one particular moment, bounteous one-person credit, securing their place in the historic books.This in item isnt true not one great man creates history there is endlessly an underlying history behind history. For example one great man did not invent the telescope. This is the typical route of invention, one hat takes an idea from an already existing item and develops it, improves it and claims it as their own. This idea is not always true. Inventions had to start somewhere, usually occurring when something is needed to make a job easier. All inventions start somewhere, but very few people create something out of nothing.And the defend of be the first is always a factor, to keep your development a secret until perfected enough to show to the public, and by then someone else may have beaten you to it. It is not the great man who creates historic moments it is the importa nce, need and reasons for the acts to take place. By Cam McBride Portfolio Task 2 Cam McBride Ancient Rome Discuss the cogitate between Ancient Rome and the United States of the States in terms of at least two of the following architecture political organization political theory and empire.Ancient Rome is a very solid base in the world of architecture perfecting concrete, having large structures, and using original techniques developed by themselves. America organism America, in my eyes initially took on one of the largest colonies to try and improve their work, be bolder, bigger and better. Ancient Rome employ large columns including steps hint upward giving a sense of importance, much like the Greeks. This was seen throughout their government buildings and town centers. Americas important buildings are very similar in this way, peculiarly in their political scene.For example the Washington White House includes steps up to columns spread across the front facade. Also includi ng a central dome, which the Romans invented and utilise often, giving a large open central focus to the building. Architecture is a big part of both cultures and is seen as a dominant force, exacting perspectives of power over the people. America is seen as the most powerful nation in the world currently, as ancient Rome once was this is perceived and reinforced wrought their style of architecture.Architecture and buildings are constantly changing over time but the base link to Rome is still there, the impression of power is still there, creating large buildings in bare surroundings, statues, and rare materials. This shows the obvious link to Roman architecture that still remains in our cultures, not only in America but all around the world. Another parallel between Roman culture and American culture is the appropriation of services, or political management.Creating a upright environment for the people was essential for the Romans and America have adopted this style of giving pr ivate raciest power and responsibility of taking care of their own. This in fact meaner that there is no distinction between public and private responsibility, in turn creating corruption amongst the people (Spangles, 2011). Having private organizations try to solve and maintain some of the public services is a bad idea, things become hazy, overlapping from service to service, this may be a solution for the short term but in the long term, much like the Roman society, the consequences are huge.They may not have an option at this stage but in my eyes, a young society like America should eve the brains, the money and the manpower to solve issues, unlike Rome. Tasks like collecting taxes, patrolling the streets and borders were once seen as a public task (Spangles, 2011) America has changed this and the benefits dont seem to outweigh the negatives, how much time will pass before the public rise up against and destroy a perfectly heart-to-heart nation, much like Europe is currently experiencing.Portfolio Task 3 Cam McBride The Medieval World In what ways is this representative of the chivalrous world-view? The Chartres cathedral, also known, as the medieval Cathedral is one of the finest hurries in France, renowned for its beautiful architecture and is a milestone in the growth of western civilization, the birth of a new era (Chartres Cathedral, ND) actually quickly dozens of churches appeared using this style, it became prolific, which conjure ups that in some ways it was a reflection of the medieval world.The gothic style in general was very sophisticated and was a strong depiction of the medieval ages. The structure was made to incorporate room for large stained glass windows on the outer walls achieved by comical the roof weight toward centre columns, which, in plan IEEE depicted the symbol of Christianity, the cross. Thus heading away from the usual cold dark interiors the churches would posses. The big rosebush windows are a huge part of the sty le and helped emphasize the height and structure of the buildings.Pointed towers and slender spires surround the building giving it a very medieval characteristic and again adding the essential height factor. The structure, the decoration and of course the function reveals the understanding of the medieval middle ages (University, ND) This building is a representation of the medieval worldview as it was a time when here were huge variations of beliefs, at one end of the scale, rationalism, requiring logical or scientific proof for some to truly believe a statement.On the other end of the scale, the extremists, total rejection of reason and solely relying on faith to get them through (Valorous, 2000). This wide range of beliefs tore people apart and gave them something to be separated by and argue about. The one thing that did not change was their belief in God. Churches were a place were everyone had common ground, the existence of God was certain, no science was needed to prove i t, although mom felt the need to prove their beliefs rationally rather than going on blind faith of what has been said to them.This giving the church a huge significance in the medieval world view as it was the central core to society, no matter how different the views of people were within the society, God remained the same, a higher power that indeed needed to be worshiped and noticed by all. Portfolio Task 4 Cam McBride Option 2 utilise the two readings below, explain what materials and technology were used in ancient Greek architectural design. The vast majority of materials used in ancient Greek architecture were based upon mingle strong and sturdy natural elements.Structural elements such as columns were initially created from timbers, one of the easiest natural materials to gather and reform to a building material. rocknroll soon began to replace timber, mainly for its structural elements but also, its dependability seemed to suit the perception of their immortal gods that they all worship. This was entirely appropriate due to the fact the temples were being built as a representation of the gods (Hemingway, 2003). The switch to stone made a big difference to how the buildings looked.As there was a retreat increase in weight, the columns and support beams had to be closer together, this gave it a more solid, heavy look. This also occurred in the roof pitch. Initially they used lighter roofing materials allowing for a heavy pitch, but the introduction and translation into stone meant they started using a range of terracotta tiles which added a tremendous amount of additional weight, decreasing this pitch vastly (Odyssey, Adventures in Archaeology, 2012) Obtaining the stone such as marble and limestone was the biggest task of creating an ancient Greek temple.It was expensive and preparation time was extensive (Peck 2005). In summary I would suggest that it wasnt the most practical building material in some cases, but it was the image it needed to port ray, the architecture had to represent strength, power and above all immortality. enceinte masses of stone were indeed the key to this depiction. The technology used in ancient Greek architecture was hugely advanced by ingenious inventions that assist them in constructing bigger and better structures.Some of the tools the Greeks invented are still used to this day, although they have been developed further, in reality they are the same concept and are used for the name tasks. For example the pulley systems used by their wooden cranes this creation advanced them immensely, previously using ramps and sleds that took a huge amount of preparation and materials (Peck, 2005). The ancient Greeks, like today, would hire specific workmen to build wooden scaffolding around the workouts.Scaffolding was essential in erecting statues, laying roofing tiles and hoisting stone. These systems became common practice and were notably developed to a stage were they were know for their precision and e xcellence in workmanship (Hemingway, 003) The tools used by early architects are still used on the building site today, squares, plum bobs, levels and hammers were all part of the technological growth they played such a huge part in.The Greeks were leaders in the national of architecture, not only playing a massive role in the development of styles, systems and technology, but portraying the meaning and purpose of a building through the use of scale, materials and placement. All these elements are used today, but in some cases, the ancient Greeks used them more effectively. Works Cited Chartres Cathedral. (ND). The Cathedral of Chartres. Retrieved May 18, 2013, from Chartres Cathedral http//www. Characteristically. dough/ Hemingway, C. (2003, October). Architecture in Ancient Greece.

Plantation System Essay

This essay seeks to account for the emergence of the plantation system in the Caribbean. Discuss with special reference to the sugar industry. According to the Oxford Concise Dictionary a plantation is a long, artificially-established forest, farm or estate, where crops are grown for sale, a good deal in distant markets rather than for local on-site consumption. The term plantation is informal and not precisely defined. Plantations are grown on a giving scale as the crops grown are for commercial purposeCrops grown on plantations include fast-growing tress (often conifers), cotton, coffee, tobacco, sugar cane, sisal, some vegetable oil seeds (notably oil palms) and rubber trees. Farms that produce alfalfa, Lespedeza, clover and other forage crops are usually not called plantations. He term plantation has usually not included giving orchards (except for banana plantations), but does include the planting of trees for lumber. A plantation is always a monoculture over a large area an d does not include lengthy naturally occurring stands of plants that have economic value. Because of its large size, a plantation takes advantage of economies of scale. Protectionist policies and natural comparative advantage have contributed to determining where plantations have been located.Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of the Roman Empire, which produced large quantities of wine and olive oil for export. Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide thriftiness that followed the expansion of European colonial empires. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time. Earlier forms of plantation agriculture were associated with large disparities of wealth and income, foreign ownership and semipolitical influence, and exploitative genial systems such as indentured labor and slavery. The history of the environmental, social and economic issues relating to plantation agricultu re is covered in articles that focus on those subjects.In the 17th century Europeans began to establish settlements in the Americas. The division of the land into smaller units under private ownership became known as the plantation system. startle in Virginia the system spread to the New England colonies. Crops grown on these plantations such as tobacco, rice, sugar cane and cotton were labor intensive. Slaves were in the fields from cockcrow to sunset and at harvest time they did an eighteen hour day. Women worked the same hours as the men and pregnant women were expected to continue until their child was born.European immigrants had at peace(p) to America to own their own land and were reluctant to work for others. Convicts were sent over from Britain but there had not been enough to satisfy the tremendous prerequisite for labor. Planters therefore began to purchase slaves. At startle these came from the West Indies but by the late 18th century they came directly from Africa and busy slave-markets were established in Philadelphia, Richmond, Charleston and New Orleans.The death-rate amongst slaves was high. To replace their losses, plantation owners encouraged the slaves to have children. Child-bearing started around the age of thirteen, and by twenty the women slaves would be expected to have four or louver children. To encourage child-bearing some population owners promised women slaves their freedom after they had produced fifteen children.In the early days of the Southern colonies land was inexpensive but workers were hard to find. custody could buy up huge estates on which to grow profitable crops such as tobacco, but they couldnt find anyone willing to work the land. At first they solved this problem by using indentured servants. An indentured servant was a type of temporary slave, contracted to work for a period of some(prenominal) years in order to pay back the cost of a passage by ship from Britain to the colonies. The conditions of plantati on life were harsh and dangerous, and 40 per centum of indentured servants died before paying off their debts.The classic plantation was a politico-economic invention, a colonial frontier institution, combining non-European slaves and European capital, technology, and managerial skill with territorial control of free or cheap subtropical lands in the mass, monocrop production of agricultural commodities for European markets. The plantation system shaped Caribbean societies in certain like ways the growth of two social segments, both migrant, one enslaved and numerous, the other free and few in number settlement on large holdings, the choicest lands (mainly coastal alluvial plains and intermontane valleys) being preempted for plantation production local political orders excluding the numerically preponderant group from civil participation by force, law, and custom and a capitalistic rationale of production, with the planter a businessman rather than a farmer-colonist, even though the investment of capital in human stock and the code of social relations lent a somewhat non-capitalist coloration to enterprise.

Beowulf: The Battle of Good and Evil

Beowulf is one of the oldest and most extensive poetrys in the history of literature today. It is also considered to be one of the pioneers of the candid versus evil theme. While the poem revolves around the adventures and battles of Beowulf, the message of the story consistently conveys the concept that good would always defeat evil. The plot itself is already evidence enough to the theme of the poem. As a warrior, Beowulf helps fight the evil Grendel, his mother, and the dragon to save the people of Heorot.Beowulf clearly believes in goodness as it is the will of God. Several texts from the poem illustrate the theme of good and evil. During his battle with Grendel, he proclaims, Whichever one death fells / must deem it a just judgment by God (lines 440-441). Beowulf is also described to be a man of faith as he declares that, the Geat placed complete trust in his strength of limb in the Lords favor (669-670). This emphasizes the fact that Beowulf relies on the steerage of God and believes it to be his strength.Even his friend Hrothgar illuminates this goodness in character when he warns Beowulf about the moral dangers caused by pride. O flower of warriors, beware of that trap. / eternal rewards. Do not give way to pride (1758-1759). On the other hand, evil rests on the characters of Grendel and his motherthe villains of the story. Grendel is introduced in a much darker tone, until finally one, a dickens out of hell, / began to work his evil in the world. / Grendel was the name of this grim demon (100-102).He is also described in the story to be a descendant of Cain which march on highlights the evil in his character, as Cain is widely known to be the biblical character who has slain his brother Abel out of jealousy. The story of Beowulf may seem to be just an extensive poem which tackles the never-ending issue of good versus evil. It is like a prolonged epic fairytale of defeating evil amidst the hardships. Yet, it is a unique literary piece that deserves its length in further reminding people that good really does conquer evil.

Importance of English in today’s world Essay

So what is English? It is nothing but a means of communication via reading/writing or speaking something. It has become so best-selling(predicate) these days that it has left behind its counterparts like French and Chinese very much behind. It might not be the most spoken native vocabulary in the world, but it is the most spoken second lyric poem in the entire world. it acts as a lingua franca or what we call a language bridge across nations. People from two different communities, countries, religion or category which might not section the same language always shake access to English to converse their views, thoughts, ideas and can come over the burden of different languages.So why speak English? Well its a self-importance answered question. If you dont speak English in todays competitive world youll be left behind in the jobs sector and in almost every other scenario of life. You wont be able to put forth your thoughts anywhere whichll result in you losing your job as headspri ng as your life. Yes English is the link to survival these days. Even if you motivation to converse with anyone in any part of the world, English is the answer. If you cant talk, read, write or type in English howd you be able to put forth your ideas in front of the other person sitting next to you or in other part of world. Howd you be able to build your confidence without conversing your ideas properly.Read more Essay on importance of EnglishSo now Ive learnt Engliash, what should I do now? Gain vocabulary and practice to make your English fluent. The more you practice, the better itll get. As it is already said, expectant Work has no substitutes, no shortcuts and no giveups For starters stand in front of a mirror and converse something to yourself as if youre giving a tongue on a stage in front of an audience. Youll be able to invigilate yourself where you stand and what else needs to be done to make it even better.If you want to do something in life, stop reading these kind o f articles, get outside and have some fresh air and start writing your own views effective like this one. Then only you can be a successful person in life. If you continuously depend on others points how would you able to define yours genius? How would you ever be a successful person in life? Whats my point of writing all these things? I not only want to share my views on such an important topic but I want the readers to be encouraged after reading this. Id be prosperous if i can strike anyones mind even for a briefest moment.So Id like to conclude by saying that it is neer too late to get up and start doing something new. itll make you better only and itll help to make friends and get along with life

Daddy Long Legs Essay

Jerusha Abbott was brought up at the John Grier Home, an old-fashioned orphanage. The children were wholly dependent on humanity and had to wear other peoples cast-off clothes. Jerushas unusual first pertain was selected by the matron off a gravestone (she hates it and uses Judy instead), while her sur bod was selected out of the phone book. At the age of 18, she has completed her education and is at loose ends, still working in the dormitories at the institution where she was brought up.One day, by and by the asylums trustees have made their monthly visit, Judy is informed by the asylums downcast matron that one of the trustees has offered to pay her way through college. He has spoken to her former teachers and thinks she has potential to become an splendiferous writer. He will pay her tuition and as well give her a generous monthly allowance. Judy moldiness write him a monthly letter, because he believes that letter-writing is important to the development of a writer.However , she will never cut his identity she must address the letters to Mr. John Smith, and he will never reply. Jerusha catches a glimpse of the shadow of her benefactor from the back, and knows he is a tall long-legged man. Because of this, she jokingly calls him Daddy-Long-Legs. She attends a girls college, but the name and location are never identified. Men from Princeton University are frequently mentioned as dates, so it might be assumed that her college is one of the Seven Sisters. It was certainly on the East Coast.She illustrates her letters with childlike line drawings, also created by Jean Webster. The book chronicles Jerushas educational, personal, and social growth. One of the first things she does at college is to change her name to Judy. She designs a rigorous reading program for herself and struggles to gain the basic cultural knowledge to which she, growing up in the bleak environment of the orphan asylum, was never exposed. At the end of the book, the identity of Daddy -Long-Legs is revealed.

What is meant by unemployment and what are its different types? Essay

Unemployment stack non be simply defined as the number of great deal without jobs. Such a exposition would include children who ar too young to work out, pensi adeptrs and housewives and differents who choose non to take up paid up employment. Since these groups pose no serious stinting problems. Unemployment in a tallyry refers to each those population who atomic number 18 go awaying to work, but are un subject to find a job. Moreoer unemployment is a very multi factor outial phenomenon. It is rather easy to notice but difficult to define. Broadly, unemployment may mean pretermit of employment. thence, anybody who fails to work may be considered as being unoccupied and therefore unemployed for the concerned period. Ordinarily, the term unemployment denotes a assign of joblessness. In the early 1980s worldwide unemployment rose to very high levels, higher(prenominal) than during some of the year 1930s although not as high as the peak unemployment prescribes of th at earlier Great opinion whereby the overall level of unemployment as well as the structure of unemployment was extremely varied. ( credit en deforms Wikipedia.com) The measurement of unemployment is very essential for any deliverance. Unemployment is one of the most serious economic problems and it is important for the governing to know the level and the graze so that it burn take appropriate corrective measures. Formula for calculating rate of unemploymentUnemployment Rate = center number unemployed x 100 parturiency furyLabour Force = Number of deal employed + Number of people unemployedUnemployment rate in MauritiusThe graph above shows the historical trim back of unemployment. In year 2004 unemployment rate was high 10.8% then it decreased from 2005. As from 2008 to 2011 we can observe that the unemployment rate was stabilized at around 7%. Which shows good reforms campaign by the administration despite the economic crisis which affected Mauritius in 2008.Types of U nemploymentThere is a lot of confusion and disagreement regarding the meaning and nature of unemployment. So, to toil the problem in a proper way and suggest remedies, we may discuss the different types of unemployment. Unemployment so may be discussed broadly under several heads Seasonal unemploymentFrictional unemploymentStructural unemploymentCyclical unemployment technical unemployment cloaked unemploymentSeasonal Unemployment gibe to Beveridge, Seasonal unemployment means the unemployment arising in particular industries through seasonal variations in their activity brought about by climatic diverges. Seasonal unemployment occurs due to lack of productive work during plastered periods of the year. Certain industries or occupations are seasonal in character.Take the fountain of ice-cream yield, which has a peak indigence during the summer.In the winter season, with a fall in the demand for ice-cream, the demand for working class engaged in its merchandise as well falls , and seasonal unemployment takes place.A sugar mill may be closed for a number of months in a year, as the supply of sugarcane stops. Seasonal unemployment may also be witnessed in the case of traditionalistic and underdeveloped agriculture. For instance, in India, the cultivators tilling the unirrigated lands very often re master(prenominal) idle for 120 to cl days in a year.Seasonal unemployment takes place mainly due to the lack of suitcapable ersatz employment opportunities in the slack season. Such unemployment usually does not lead to serious distress, as the fee in seasonal occupations are comparatively higher, which take into accounts for the period of unemployment. Solutions to Seasonal UnemploymentSuch unemployment can be trim by encouraging people to take different jobs in the off season. Reduced unemployment benefits and astir(p) the flow of instruction may also be beneficial.2. Frictional UnemploymentThe term frictional unemployment refers to the unemployment th at is associated with the normal overturn of beat back. battalion leave jobs for many occasions and they take eon to find new jobs old persons leave the get the picture party force and young person enter it, for caseful, school leavers but often new workers do not fill the jobs vacated by those who leave. Inevitably all of this movement takes time and give rise to a syndicate of persons who are frictionally unemployed while in the course of finding new jobs. This unemployment would occur even if the occupational, industrial and regional structure of unemployment were unchanging. When the welfare payments are more attractive than the work itself, some of the unemployed believe that the levy and the benefit system will reduce remarkablely the net increase in income from taking paid work and choose to be on the welfare rather. Causes of frictional unemploymentThe relationship between workers and employers tends to be heterogeneous in some or the other way. This mismatch c an lead to frictional unemployment, which work ups it most related to geomorphological unemployment. Fresh graduates flavour for a good job, but are not able to get it right away be subject of legitimate demands by the employers in price of skills and experience, therefore resulting in frictional unemployment. Factors related to preference, work environment, skills, remuneration, location, work timings, etc., always rise a sense of dissatisfaction in the workers or employers. This is one of the main causes of frictional unemployment. Solutions to frictional unemploymentThe government can make the information about the labour commercialise more readily acquirable. Schools can provide more guidance about the jobs in the market and slang professionals to speak about their jobs so as to provide more information to the school leavers. The government can create some part time jobs as a solution to the unemployment. Proper teaching methodal advice to college students in terms of the job demands and skills required to get job faster.(Reference tutor2u.com)3. Structural UnemploymentStructural unemployment takes place because of a change or defect in the economic structure of a country. It occurs as a result of changes in demand and supply conditions for certain categories of labour. According to Beveridge, structural unemployment means the unemployment arising in particular industries or localities through a change of demand so great that it may be regarded as affecting the main economic structure of a country. There are some distinct similarities between frictional and structural unemployment, as both arise due to maladjustment between the demand for and supply of labour. However, there are certain important differences between the two. Frictional unemployment is of a shorter duration and takes place because of short-lived factors.Hence although the demand for labour may decline in certain industries this fall in demand is counterbalanced by a rise in deman d in some other industries. In case of structural unemployment, the get hold of in demand for labour is more permanent, extensive and deep rooted. The barriers to mobility are rather more formidable. According to Thomas D. Simpson structural unemployment is more heavily concentrated among certain employment and demographic groups. It affects a significant number of workers in certain occupations, industries, racial, and age groups, whereas frictional unemployment tends to occur more widely. Secondly, structural unemployment is less self-imposed than frictional unemployment.Solutions to Structural UnemploymentThe government can retrain the workers to meet the demand for a new congeal of skills. For example, farmers should learn the new techniques of production using automation rather than rely only on the traditional manner of farming. Workers should improve their skills and reduce occupational immobility. Policies should provide the unemployed with skills they need in order to be re-deployed. In this era of information technology, workers should stool IT knowledge to remain employed. Education and training opportunities should be do available to the workers so that they can get trained and improve their chances of taking on new jobs that are available in the parsimoniousness.4 Cyclical/ Keynesians unemployment/ deficient-demand unemployment Cyclical unemployment happens to be the most common type of unemployment in an industrially developed capitalist economy. According to the classical economists, in the long run there would be a full employment equilibrium. But in reality we find that a capitalist economy is characterised by alternate periods of prosperity and depression, rising economic activity and employment and sluggish business conditions and go employment opportunities. Cyclical unemployment is also popularly known as Keynesian unemployment, following Keynes. Keynes has culled this type of unemployment as involuntary unemployment. Lerner has termed this unemployment during an economic depression as deflationary unemployment.Moreover, cyclical unemployment is when workers lose their jobs during downturns in the business cycle. It broadly speaking happens when the economy contracts, as measured by Gross Domestic Product (GDP). If the economy contracts for two living sucks or more, then the economy is in a recession. Cyclical unemployment is usually the cause of high unemployment, when grade quickly grow to 8% or even 10% of the labor force. Its known as cyclical because, when the economy re-enters the expansion phase of the business cycle, the unemployed will get rehired. Cyclical unemployment is temporary although it could last anywhere from 18 months (the typical time frame of a recession) to ten years (during a depression). (Reference, Wikipedia)Cyclical unemployment through a diagramAs we can see in the AD/AS diagram, the fall in AD to AD1 will result in a fall in the rattling output (Y1).This will force the pi sseds to reduce their output and hence reduce their workforce from ADL to ADL1. However, due to mesh stickiness it is less likely that real wages will fall (as seen in the labour diagram). Therefore, the wages instead of coming down to W1 will remain at We. This will create a surplus military position where the join demand for labour will be at a and the aggregate supply of labour will be b. (reference tutor4u.com) 5. Technological Unemployment.Technological unemployment takes place because of rapid technological improvements. Introduction of better machinery and labour saving know-how has a tendency to displace labour force. Myrdal cites the example of technological unemployment in the American agricultural sector in the fifties, when due to the introduction of labour-saving techniques, the agricultural workers as part of the total civil labour force declined from 126 to 85 per cent. Introduction of improved technology in production will lower the capital-output ratio and the l abour-output ratio. This will increase the productivity of capital and labour, causing technological unemployment. Probably due to this reason, even now introduction of electronic computers has always been viewed with suspicion by the workers. 6. Disguised Unemployment.As the word suggests, disguised unemployment refers to a situation when a person is apparently employed, but in effect unemployed. t is a phenomenon of concealed unemployment, not visible to the open eyes. Here it is not doable to identify as to who are unemployed, as all appear to be working. As Nurkse has remarked, In an overpopulated shaver economy, we cannot point to any person and say he is unemployed in disguise. The people may all be occupied and no one may consider himself idle. The concept of disguised unemployment was originally conceived by Mrs. Joan Robinson.Her concept of disguised unemployment is more applicable to the advanced developed countries. According to her, a decline in demand for the product of the general run of industries leads to a diversification of labour from occupations in which productivity is higher, to others where it is lower. The cause of this diversion, a decline in effective demand, is exactly the same as the cause of unemployment in the mine run sense and it is natural to describe the adoption occupations by dismissed workers as disguised unemployment. ConclusionUnemployment is something which is of great concern to individuals as well as the economy. It is surely something to worry about as it decamps economic resources and causes gay suffering such as poverty, famine, depression and so on. Also experiences of unemployment are becoming much perennial in duration and are increasing significantly. Hence alleviation of unemployment is a prime aim of the government in order to boost the economy.How could you measure unemployment and discuss the problem associated with each measure?Most people bring in intuitively that being unemployed means not having a job. That said, its important to understand more precisely how unemployment is measured in order to properly interpret and make sense of the numbers. basically there are two types of method to measure unemployment I. Claimant count methodII. The Labour Force look intoClaimant Count MethodThis method calculates unemployment by measuring the number of people receiving benefits (Job Seekers valuation account). If the rate is up, it indicates a lack of expansion within the labor market, while it indicates economic expansion and could spark inflationary pressures if the rate is down. Generally, a decrease of the figure is seen as positive, while an increase is seen as negative. Source www.fxwords.comGraph 2 shows claimant count of United Kingdom An example of a claimant count chart can be expatiated above where we can analyses a decreasing trend during the years of people claiming for unemployment benefits thus indicating beneficial economic conditions, ceteris paribus.The Labour Fo rce SurveyA labour force survey is an inquiry directed to households designed to obtain information on the labour market and related issues by means of personal interviews. The information collected on the labour market can then be used to develop, manage, evaluate and report on labour market policies.According to the Mauritius Labour Force, utilization and Unemployment survey the following result were obtained Second fundament 20121. Employment of Mauritians is estimated at 548,300 at the second quarter of 2012 compared to 535,500 at the first quarter of 2012 and 531,400 at the second quarter of 2011.2. The unemployment rate is estimated at 8.2% for the second quarter of 2012compared to 8.0% at both the first quarter of 2012 and the second quarter of 2011.3. The main characteristics of the unemployed at the second quarter of 2012 were(i) The 48,900 unemployed comprised 20,100 males (41%) and 28,800 females (59%).(ii) Around 22,300 (46%) of them were aged below 25 years.(iii) Abou t 55% of the unemployed were single. Among males, the majority (80%) was single while among females, the majority (61%) was ever married.(iv) around 7,800 or 16% had not reached the Certificate of Primary Education (CPE) level or equivalent and a set ahead 21,900 (45%) did not have the Cambridge School Certificate (SC) or equivalent.(v) 11,300 (23%) had been looking for work for more than one year.(vi) 18,900 (39%) were looking for a job for the first time.Thus these result could be use to devise policies by the government for example whether to invest more or not, in order to combat unemployment and other economic turmoil.Reference gov.muProblem associated with claimant countThe criteria to be eligible for benefits often changes, usually this has been to reduce the claimant count. This makes it difficult to compare over time. The claimant count excludesPeople over pension age, who will typically claim pensions rather than Job Seekers allowance People under 18, (with a few excepti ons)People in full time education, who may cool it be classed as unemployed. People not eligible for contribution based JSA. To claim the contributions based JSA they need to have paid at least two years of NI contributions. Also, their level of savings or their partners income may be too high to be eligible. Any one on a government training schemesMarried women looking to return to workThose looking for part time work and not full time workSome people may claim benefits whilst even so working in the black market i.e. claim JSA fraudulently. Some people may be able to work upto 16 hours a week and still legally claim JSA (JSA- Job Seekers allowance)Problem associated with Labour force surveyIt could be subject to sampling errors and may not be truly representative. The assay chosen may be from just few regions of the country, instead of the whole population/every region. This will generate bias result thus it will be wrongly interpreted leading to ineffectual policies to combat unemployment.It is time consuming and costly, basically conducting this survey may take months or years depending on the size of the economy and the number of population. In the same vein a lot of paper work is needed for this survey, more officers must be hired to conduct private interview.Hence there is no perfect method to measure unemployment accurately, as all measures have theirs pros and cons. For example claimant count consider various(a) criteria to be eligible for the allowance whereas Labour Force Survey may not be representative. The method to measure unemployment also depend on the type of economyDiscuss the effect of unemployment on an economy?Unemployment is universally recognized as a bad thing. It brings a lot of adverse effect to an economy. The consequences are as follows1. The consequences to the individualIncrease health risk Unemployment increases susceptibility to malnutrition, illness, mental stress, and loss of self-esteem, leading to depression. not everyo ne suffers equally from unemployment, highly conscientious people suffers more than twice. For example fresh graduates or people property a degree but is unable to find a job are the most affected. fundamentally the table below shows the unemployment rate of people having a tertiary education in Mauritius. The Unemployment with tertiary education (% of total unemployment) in Mauritius was last reported at 7.90 in 2010, gibe to a World intrust report published in 2012. Graph 3 show Unemployment with tertiary education (% of total unemployment) in Mauritius Source indexmundi.com /csoLoss of incomeUnemployment normally results in a loss of income. The majority of the unemployed experience a decline in their living standards and are worse off out of work. This leads to a decline in spending power and the rise of falling into debt problems. The unemployed for example may find it difficult to nutriment up with their mortgage repayments.2. The Consequences to the businessLess overall sp endingWhen people are unemployed in cock-a-hoop numbers, it hurts the rest of the economy, creating a cyclical problem. When people have less money to spend because of unemployment, other companies suffer from less consumer demand. Then, when companies suffer because of lost business, they might in turn be forced to make layoffs of their own, making the unemployment rate rise and overall spending drop even more. The cyclical effect of unemployment is the reason for government-issued economic stimulus packages to help businesses in difficulty. Logic suggests that when people have more money, they spend it, thereby stimulating the economy and simulating job growth. Social problemsBusiness may be impacted by neighborly problems associated with high unemployment (e.g. rising hatred). If the market of a business is situated in a place where the crime rate is high and where there is high unemployment rate, it can have adverse effect on the business. use up may fall due to the negative image of the areas, potential consumers may prefer to purchase their goods and work at a more unattackable place for personal security thus if demand fall, the firms revenue will decrease which can lead to bankruptcy consequently more people will be unemployment. Inferior goodsDemand for inferior goods (lower price, quality) may increase, the demand for opulence goods will decrease. Thus business engage in production of inferior good will gain and those in luxury good will lose.Graph 1 demand for luxury goods under unemployment Graph 2 demand for inferior goods under unemploymentAs shown above, in graph 1 the demand of luxury goods has decrease from D to D1 dueto unemployment, lack of potential buyers. Quantity supply has decreased from Q to Q1 leading to a decrease in price from P to P1. Area P,T,Z,P1 is the loss incurred by the firm operating under luxury goods production. On the contrary graph 2 shows the increase in demand for inferior goods from D to D1 due to unemployment. People will prefer to buy cheap goods due to lack of income. Quantity supply has increase from S to S1 causing price to rise in the long run from P to P1. Area P1,T,Z,P is the profit incurred by the firm operating under inferior goods production due to a rise in demand. 3. The Consequences for the governmentFiscal costsHigh unemployment has an impact on government expenditure, taxation. An increase in unemployment results in higher benefit payments and lower tax revenues. When individuals are unemployed, not only do they receive benefits but also pay no income tax. As they are spending less they contribute lessto the government in indirect taxes, the government will have to scale back plans for prevalent spending on humankind and merit goods. Government BorrowingSpending along with the fall in tax revenues due to unemployment may result in a higher government borrowing requirement (known as a public sector net cash requirement). The Central government debt total (current LCU) in Mauritius was last reported at 113289300000 in 2010, according to a World Bank report published in 2012.Graph 4 shows The government of Mauritius debts4. The Consequences for the economy as a wholeLost output of goods and servicesUnemployment causes a waste of scarce economic resources and reduces the long run growth potential of the economy. An economy with high unemployment is producing within its production possibility frontier. The hours that the unemployed do not work can never be recovered.Negative multiplier factor effectsThe closure of a local factory with the loss of hundreds of jobs can have a large negative multiplier effect on both the local and regional economy. One persons spending is anothers income so to lose well-paid jobs can lead to a drop in demand for local services, downward pressure on house prices and second-round employment effects for businesses supplying the factor or plant that closed down.Hence unemployment affects many aspects in an economy such as soc ial, individual, economical and so on. Unemployment affects the economy in ways that most people do not visually see. Some effects are avoidable and some are inevitable. Evaluate the impact of the different policy measures pick out by the government of Mauritius in order to control unemployment? A range of government policies are available for the Government of Mauritius wanting to reduce the scale of unemployment in the economy. The Government can do many things to try and influence the level of employment.However some policies the government use can conflict with other policies for example if they were to spend more on education and training (so increasing the skills of workers) they would have to spend less on other things such as health-care. Basically the situation of unemployment in Mauritius is alarming, here is a chart to illustrate the seriousness of the issueChChGraph 5 shows the Mauritius unemployed personsUnemployed Persons in Mauritius increased to 44000 Persons in F ebruary of 2012 from 43800 Persons in November of 2011, according to a report released by the Central Statistics Office, Mauritius. Historically, from 2004 until 2012, Mauritius Unemployed Persons averaged 45757.6 Persons reaching an all time high of 56100.0 Persons in May of 2005 and a record low of 35000.0 Persons in November of 2008. Sourceindexmundi.comFiscal measureThe Additional stimulant Package was presented in December 2008 to support enterprises on a short-term basis. The package introduced a implement for Transitional Support to the Private Sector, which was eventually replaced by the Economic Restructuring and Competitiveness Programme in 2010 under the Facing the Euro Zone Crisis & Restructuring for Long Term Resilience Memorandum presented in August 2010.This political program also included SURE (Support Unit for Re-Employment of Employees), and plans for restructuring the tourism industry, and for supporting the sugar industry. In 2012, Rs 7.3 Billion has been per petrate to a National Resilience Fund to help businesses better face the economic downturn. Thus this would make current employees job and would create new jobs. During the financial crisis in the 2008, The government of Mauritius injected Rs6 jillion in the economy for education, training, food security and This massive investment funds has been possible due to the fruit of past reforms in terms of fiscal benefits.In addition to these policy options, the Mauritian government introduced an Additional Stimulus Package in December 2008. In effect, Rs4 billion was earmarked to save employment. Much effort was made to sustain, modernise and ease the portal to finance of local enterprises to help them improve their productivity and competitiveness. In year 2011, 5000 new Small & long suit attempts were created and were awarded grants by the government compared to 7,600 in Reunion Island in the same year. Thus creating jobs. The government proposed a tax rebate on all earnings for new entrepreneurs in the first two years, certain taxes have been suspended over two years, in tourism, construction and other sectors. Consequently, there will be a boost in their revenue and it may encourage the creation of new jobs. Source Le Matinal(newspaper) bring out side policies (reduce frictional and structural unemployment) To educate is to empower. The government proposed more funds allocated to SMEs so that they can provide required training to their employees. The National Resiliency Fund was created last year by the Minister of pay to encourage the youth employment. The government in his last budget proposed that all secondary schools have a qualified career advisor and propose that all schools promote extra-curricular activities such as the Young Enterprise Awards. There should also be qualified staff in each state school, to help transmission line underperforming students in their right vocation. The Minister of Finance promised Rs 500,000 to schools around the islan d. The more skillful you are the more secure you are to get a job. Reflating Aggregate DemandThe government succeeded in attracting foreign direct investment in Mauritius as it rose by 19.8 percent in the first six months of 2012 to 4.077 billion Mauritius rupees ($133.89 million) from 3.401 billion a year ago, according to the central bank thus contributing in enhancing the real subject field output consequently increasing the demand for labour.Foreign direct investment has risen causing aggregate demand to shift from AD1 to AD2 consequently the demand for labour to shift from LD1 to LD2 causing an obvious decrease in unemployment.Basically in assessing the strong point of these measures we just have to compare the working population to previous years Graph 6 shows Employedpersons in Mauritius Economic policies till 2008 to 2012 had a positive impact on the labour market as there has been a rise in labour force which shows the effectiveness of these policies adopted by the govern ment of Mauritius.Hence unemployment do not have an exact definition, it do not have a measure to calculate it exactly, its effects are vast and there are various measures to combat it. Unemployment is inevitable in an economy. The economy must see unemployment as a challenge, opportunity and tractor trailer the issue with intelligence, not as a major economic turmoil, or be afraid of.

Effective Approaches to Leadership Essay

There is talk that the breast feeding shortage is everyplace, but the facts show that there is a substantial nursing shortage which is projected to intensify over the next several years. This fact alone will increase the subscribe on the remaining nurses in the lead to nurse burn out and increased turnover rates. Nurses are the largest group of health care professionals in America, but the majority of the nurses are close to retirement age (Institute of Medicine IOM, 2010).This paper will shout out the issue of nursing shortage, nurse turnover and how nurse leaders and managers are approaching these issues, along with the individual(prenominal) and professional philosophy of nursing of the author of this paper. There are many reasons why a nursing shortage exists, and why it is only going to get worse over the next several years. The median value age of the nursing workforce is 46 years of age and almost 50 percent of altogether nurses are close to retirement, which will subs tantially impact the nursing shortage (American Nurses Association, 2013).The Affordable Care process of 2010 ensures that every American have access to affordable health care (U. S. Department of Health & pitying Services, 2013). This places an additional demand for nurses, and just increases the shortage. The results of the advances in medicine has increased the average life span, increasing the upshot of people living with chronic illness, and also increasing patient acuity levels which in turn increases the demand for advanced educated practioners.Nursing colleges and universities across the county are struggling to expand their enrollment levels in crop to meet the rising demand for nursing care (American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2012). Reductions in nursing budgets together with the development nursing shortage has resulted in nurses working more, taking care of sicker patients and at risk for making mistakes. This further complicates the nursing shortage as th is type of environment only drives the current nursing force extraneous from the bedside.The current Registered Nurse turnover rate is 14% (American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2012). One incentive that management and leadership nurses should be aspiring to is Magnet Status. The American Nurses Association in 1990 developed the Magnet status in an effort to reward hospitals that attract and retain nurses who demonstrate excellence in nursing practice (American Nurses Credentialing Center, 2013).

Desistance

Criminology & sorry legal expert 2006 SAGE Publications (London, Thousand Oaks & New Delhi) and the British Society of Criminology. www. sagepublications. com ISSN 17488958 Vol 6(1) 3962 DOI 10. 1177/1748895806060666 A desistance substitution class for wrongdoer perplexity FERGUS McNEILL Universities of Glasgow and Strathclyde, UK Abstr second In an in? uential member print in the British Journal of Social Work in 1979, Anthony Bottoms and Bill McWilliams proposed the adoption of a non- manipulation figure for probation coiffe.Their argument rested on a c arful and considered analysis non only of semi observational grounds ab out(p) the in military capability of rehabilitative word besides connaturally of theoretical, moral and philosophical questions to the highest degree much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) interventions. By 1994, emerging leaven close to the capability potentness of well-nigh intervention programmes was suf? cient to atomic number 82 beam of light Raynor and Maurice Vanst wholeness to point signi? send wordt revisions to the non- discussion effigy.In this article, it is argued that a different but equally germane(predicate) form of empirical enjointhat derived from desistance studiessuggests a withdraw to re-evaluate these earlier mental images for probation radiation diagram. This reevaluation is in addition required by the trifleation that such(prenominal) studies enable us to understand and theorize both desistance itself-importance and the role that penal professionals world power play in back up it.Ultimately, these empirical and theoretical insights drive us back to the complex interfaces in the midst of technical and moral questions that indifferent Bottoms and McWilliams and that should feature to a greater ex got prominently in contemporary debates roughly the futures of wrongdoer focusing and of our penal systems. make water Words desistance forcefulness ethics offender charge non pr each(prenominal)ing icon probation 39 40 Criminology & reprehensible Justice 6(1) IntroductionCritical analysts of the history of ideas in the probation service bring forth charted the various reconstructions of probation give that collect accompanied changes in penal theories, policies and sensibilities. Most famously, McWilliams (1983, 1985, 1986, 1987) describe the transformations of probation from a missionary endeavour that aimed to save souls, to a professionalized endeavour that aimed to cure offend through rehabilitative preaching, to a practical(a) endeavour that aimed to provide picks to custody and practical avail for offenders ( check up on as well Vanst nonpareil, 2004).More recent commentators construct suggested later transformations of probation practice related ? rst to its cast, in England and Wales, as punishment in the comp any(prenominal) and t presentfore to its change magnitude focus on put on the line trouble and public protect ion (Robinson and McNeill, 2004). In distributively of these eras of probation history, practitioners, academics and other commentators have sought to articulate radical epitomes for probation practice. though much of the debate about the merits of these images has concentrate on empirical questions about the ef? acy of different approaches to the treatment and management of offenders, probation paradigms also re? ect, unquestioningly or explicitly, developments both in the philosophy and in the sociology of punishment. The origins of this article ar similar in that the initial pulsation for the development of a desistance paradigm for offender management1 emerged from re places of desistance research (McNeill, 2003) and, more speci? cally, from the ? ndings of close to specially cardinal recent studies (Burnett, 1992 Rex, 1999 Maruna, 2001 Farrall, 2002).However, closer examination of some aspects of the desistance research also suggests a normative contingency for a new paradigm indeed, some of the empirical evidence come outs to make a necessity out of sure practice virtues. That these virtues argon arguably in decline as a result of the fore-fronting of risk and public protection in contemporary criminal umpire serves to make the development of the mooring for a desistance paradigm both timely and necessary. To that end, the structure of this article is as follows.It pops with summaries of both important paradigms for probation practicethe nontreatment paradigm (Bottoms and McWilliams, 1979) and the revised paradigm (Raynor and Vanstone, 1994). The article then proceeds with an analysis of the emerging theoretical and empirical case for a desistance paradigm. This section draws not only on the ? ndings of desistance studies but also on recent studies of the effectiveness of different approaches to securing private change in general and on recent developments in the what deeds belles-lettres in surgical incisionicular.The estimable ca se for a desistance paradigm is then advanced not only in the light of the empirical evidence about the practical necessity of certain modes of ethical practice, but also in the light of developments in the philosophy of punishment, close to notably the ideas associated with the work of the new replenishmentists (Lewis, 2005) and with Anthony duffs penal communications possible action (Duff, McNeillA desistance paradigm for offender management 2001, 2003).In the concluding raillery, I analyze to sketch out some of the parameters of a desistance paradigm, though this is intended more as an attempt to chivvy debate about its development quite than to de? ne categorically its features. 41 Changing paradigms for probation practice committal to writing at the end of the 1970s, Bottoms and McWilliams declared the rent for a new paradigm for probation practice, a paradigm that is theoretically rigorous, which takes very seriously the limitations of the treatment model but which r enders to redirect the probation services tralatitious aims and set in the new penal and neighborly scene (1979 167).Bottoms and McWilliams proposed their paradigm against the backdrop of a prevailing view that treatment had been discredited both empirically and ethically. Though they did not review the empirical case in any great detail, they refer to several(prenominal) studies (Lipton et al. , 1975 Brody, 1976 Greenberg, 1976) as establishing the broad conclusion that dramatic reformative results are hard to discover and are usually absent (Bottoms and McWilliams, 1979 160). They also stressed the theoretical inadequacies of the treatment model, noting several ? aws in the analogy amid probation interventions and medical treatment ? st, execration is voluntary whereas well-nigh diseases are not second, crime is not pathological in any straightforward smack and third, individual treatment models sloppiness the fond causes of crime. Worse salvage, neglect of these ? aws produced ethical problems they argued that over-con? dence in the prospects for effecting change through treatment had permitted its advocates both to squeeze offenders into interventions (because the treatment provider was an expert who knew high hat) and to ignore offenders views of their admit situations (because offenders were victims of their own lack of insight).Perhaps most insidiously of all, at heart this ideology coerced treatment could be justi? ed in offenders own best takes. Bottoms and McWilliams also discerned an important underlying con? ict between the determinism implied in diagnosis and treatment and the frequently stressed casework linguistic rule of client selfdetermination (1979 166). How can offenders be simultaneously the objects on whom psychological, physical and cordial forces operate (as the term diagnosis implies) and the authors of their own futures (as the principle of self-determination requires)?Bottoms and McWilliams hope was that by exposi ng the weaknesses of the treatment paradigm, they would book for a renaissance of the probation services traditional core values of hope and respect for persons. They suggested that the four primary aims of the service are and have been 1 2 3 4 The training of inhibit encourage for offenders The statutory supervision of offenders Diverting appropriate offenders from custodial sentences The reduction of crime (1979 168). 42 Criminology & Criminal Justice 6(1) It is their discussion of the ? rst and second of these objectives that is most germane(predicate) to the discussion here.However, it is worth noting ? rst that, for Bottoms and McWilliams, the problem with the treatment model was that it assumed that the fourth objective must(prenominal) be achieved through the pursuit of the ? rst three an assumption that they suggested could not be sustained empirically. 2 With regard to the provision of jock as opposed to treatment, Bottoms and McWilliams rejected the objecti? cation of offenders implied in the casework relationship, wherein the offender becomes an object to be treated, elderly or managed in and through amicable policy and professional practice. One subject of this objecti? ation, they suggested, is that the formulation of treatment plans rests with the expert the approach is essentially of? cer-centred. Bottoms and McWilliams (1979 173) suggested, by way of contrast, that in the non-treatment paradigm (a) treatment (b) Diagnosis (c) customers Dependent Need as the basis for social work action becomes becomes becomes Help overlap Assessment Collaboratively De? ned Task as the basis for social work action In this formulation, help includes but is not moderate to material help probation may continue to address emotional or psychological dif? ulties, but this is no longer its raison detre. Critically, the test of any proposed intervention technique is that it must help the client. Bottoms and McWilliams (1979 174) explicitly disavowed any claim that the help model would be bene? cial in the reduction of crime. 3 Having reconceived of probation practice as help rather than treatment, Bottoms and McWilliams discussion of probations second aim, the statutory supervision of offenders, explored the implicit tensions between help and surveillance.Accepting that probation of? cers are law enforcement agents as well as helpers, they drew on an article by Raynor (1978) that argued for a crucial distinction between coercion and constraint choice under constraint is chastely acceptable manipulative coercion is not (Bottoms and McWilliams, 1979 177). Following Raynor, they suggested that fashioning this distinction meaningful required probation of? cers actively to seek, within the constraints of the probation order, to maximize the area of choice for the offender.Their paradigm therefore invoked a distinction between the requisite requirements obligate by the court (with the offenders constrained consent) and the substantiv e content of the support march. In the latter connection, the client should be free to choose to accept or reject help without terror of further sanctions. Put another way, the authority for supervision derives from the court but the authority for help resides in the offender. For Bottoms and McWilliams this required that the (then) legal requirement of consent by defendants to probation and partnership ervice should be taken much more seriously indeed, they suggested that so as to vitiate compulsory help McNeillA desistance paradigm for offender management arising from a probation recommendation, defendants consent to such recommendations should be required. Where consent was absent, no such recommendation should be made. xv years later, Peter Raynor and Maurice Vanstone (1994) argued that the non-treatment paradigma paradigm that they clearly regarded as being well befitting of the in? uence that it had exercised in the intervening yearswas none the slight in shoot of re vision.The resurgence of optimism about the potential effectiveness of some forms of treatment guide Raynor and Vanstone to argue that the foundations of the non-treatment paradigm, built as they were out of a mixture of doubt and scepticism about the crime-reducing potential of rehabilitation, have produced cracks in the structure (1994 396) By uncoupling helping offenders from crime reduction, the paradigm is prevented from exploring whether work with individuals on their idea, behaviour and attitudes has any relevance to crime reduction. menses k this instantadays conductge of research into effectiveness necessitates, therefore, a rede? ing of the concept of appropriate help in a way that retains the principle of collaboration, and the stress on client needs, but which incorporates informed practice concentrate on in? uencing and helping individuals to stop pique . . . This should not detract from the need to address the social and economic context of crime. (Raynor and Vans tone, 1994 398) 43 It is clear that Raynor and Vanstone (1994) were not advocating a return to a treatment paradigm rather, in their discussion of intervention programmes, they explicitly rejected Bottoms and McWilliams dichotomization of treatment and help.More speci? cally, Raynor and Vanstone questioned the assumption that critiques of psychodynamic approaches as involving disguised coercion, denial of clients views, the objecti? cation of populate, and a demonstrable lack of effectiveness when applied to offenders (1994 399) could be equally applied to all forms of treatment. This false assumption, they argued, led Bottoms and McWilliams to ignore other possible bases for intervention outside the medical model and fosterd the reader to determine all attempts to in? uence offenders as ethically objectionable treatment (Raynor and Vanstone, 1994 400).A further crucial problem with the non-treatment paradigm rested in its neglect of victims. The arguments of left realist crimino logists (Young, 1988) persuaded Raynor and Vanstone (1994) that the traditional probation value of respect for persons had to include the actual and potential victims of crime. This in turn implied that the extent to which client (that is, offender) choice could be respect and unconditional help could be offered had some necessary limitations essentially, probation had to accept an obligation to work to bowdlerise the harms caused by crime, as well as the ills that provoke it.Thus Compensatory help and empowerment of offenders are a proper response to situations where individuals have had few opportunities to avoid crime, but 44 Criminology & Criminal Justice 6(1) their purpose is not s implicate to widen offenders choices it includes doing so in a manner consistent with a wider goal of crime reduction. Such a goal is not simply in the interests of the powerful although criminal nicety in an unequal society re? ects and is belie by its inequalities, the least powerful suffer som e of the most common kinds of crime and are most in need of protection from it. This includes, of hang, many offenders who are themselves victims of crime . . . ) (Raynor and Vanstone, 1994 401) Raynor and Vanstone (1994 402) concluded by adapting Bottoms and McWilliams (1979) nonrepresentational compact of their paradigm (a) Help becomes Help consistent with a commitment to the reduction of harm Explicit converse and talks offering opportunities for informed consent to involvement in a process of change Collaboratively de? ned travail germane(predicate) to criminogenic needs, and potentially effective in meeting them b) Shared assessment becomes (c) Collaboratively de? ned task becomes In equipment casualty of both organizational change and practice development, the 10 years that followed the publication of Raynor and Vanstones (1994) article have been even more tumultuous than the years between the publication of the non-treatment paradigm and its revision. It is beyond th e scope of this article to give an account of these changes (see Nellis, 1999 Raynor and Vanstone, 2002 Mair, 2004 Robinson and McNeill, 2004).Indeed, since the purpose of this article is to consider how the practice of offender management should be suppose in the light of the desistance research, there is some merit in ignoring how it has been reconstructed for more political and pragmatic drives. That said, two particular developments require comment. The ? rst relates to changes in formulations of the purposes of probation since the publication of the earlier paradigms.Without entering into the ongoing debates about the recasting of probations purposes south of the border (see Robinson and McNeill, 2004 Worrall and Hoy, 2005), it is suf? cient to state that, in contrast to the four aims outlined by Bottoms and McWilliamsaims which were still uncontested by Raynor and Vanstone in 1994the new National Offender Management Service, incorporating prisons and probation, exists to man age offenders and in so doing to provide a service to the law-abiding public. Its objectives are to punish offenders and to reduce re-offending (Blunkett, 2004 10).The second development concerns the action of a particular approach to developing effective probation practice in England and Wales in McNeillA desistance paradigm for offender management the form of the what work initiative (McNeill, 2001, 2004a). In effect, this initiative involves the imposition from the centre of an implicit what whole works paradigm for probation practice. Once again the debates about the characteristics, implications and ? aws of this paradigm are complex (see Mair, 2004). Perhaps he easiest way to summarize the paradigm however, is to suggest a further revision to Raynor and Vanstones (1994) adaptation of Bottoms and McWilliams (1979) schematic summary (a) Help consistent with a commitment to the reduction of harm (b) Explicit dialogue and negotiation offering opportunities for informed consent to involvement in a process of change (c) Collaboratively de? ned task relevant to criminogenic needs, and potentially effective in meeting them becomes Intervention required to reduce reoffending and protect the public master assessment of risk and need governed by the application of structured assessment instruments 5 becomes becomes Compulsory encounter in structured programmes and case management processes to address criminogenic needs as required elements of legal orders imposed irrespective of consent Theoretical and empirical arguments for a desistance paradigm4 A fundamental but perhaps indispensable problem with the non-treatment paradigm, the revised paradigm and the what works paradigm is that they begin in the wrong place that is, they begin by thinking about how practice (whether treatment, help or programmes) should be constructed without ? rst thinking about how change should be understood.For Bottoms and McWilliams (1979) this omission makes some sense, since th eir premise was that the prospects for practice securing individual change were bleak. However, for Raynor and Vanstone (1994) and for the prevailing what works paradigm, the problem is more serious presumptuousness their reasonable optimism about the prospects for individual rehabilitation, the absence of a well- actual theory of how rehabilitation occurs is more problematic. 5 Understanding desistance The change process involve in the rehabilitation of offenders is desistance from offending.The smooth impact that desistance research has had on policy and practice hitherto is both surprising and problematic because 46 Criminology & Criminal Justice 6(1) knowledge about processes of desistance is clearly critical to our understandings of how and why ex-offenders come to change their behaviours. Indeed, edifice an understanding of the human processes and social contexts in and through which desistance occurs is a necessary precursor to developing practice paradigms put another way , constructions of practice should be embedded in understandings of desistance.The implications of such embedding are signi? cant and far-reaching. Maruna et al. (2004) draw a parallel with a related reassign in the ? eld of addictions away from the feel of treatment and towards the idea of convalescence, quoting an in? uential essay by William White (2000) Treatment was birthed as an adjunct to recovery, but, as treatment grew in size and status, it de? ned recovery as an adjunct of itself. The original perspective needs to be recaptured. Treatment institutions need to once again become servants of the larger recovery process and the association in which that recovery is nested and sustained . . (White, 2000, cited in Maruna et al. , 2004 9) Although the language of recovery may be inappropriate in relation to offenders, effrontery both that it implies a medical model and that it suggests a prior state of well-being that may neer have existed for many, the analogy is telling none the less. Put simply, the implication is that offender management services need to think of themselves less as providers of correctional treatment (that belongs to the expert) and more as supporters of desistance processes (that belong to the desister).In some respects, this shift in perspective, by re-emphasizing the offenders viewpoint, faculty re-invigorate the non-treatment paradigms rejection of the objecti? cation of the client and of the elevation of the therapist. However, it does so not by rejecting treatment per se, but by seeing professional intervention as being, in some sense, subservient to a wider process that belongs to the desister. Before proceeding further, more needs to be said about how processes of desistance should be understood and theorized.Maruna (2001) identi? es three broad theoretical perspectives in the desistance belles-lettres maturational reform, social splices theory and narrative theory. Maturational reform (or ontogenic) theories have the longest history and are establish on the established links between age and certain criminal behaviours, particularly pass crime. Social bonds (or sociogenic) theories suggest that ties to family, employment or educational programmes in early adulthood explain changes in criminal behaviour across the life course.Where these ties exist, they create a stake in conformity, a reason to go straight. Where they are absent, people who offend have less to lose from continuing to offend. floor theories have emerged from more qualitative research which stresses the signi? cance of prejudiced changes in the persons sense of self and identity, re? ected in changing motivations, greater concern for others and more consideration of the future. Bringing these perspectives together, Farrall stresses the signi? cance of theMcNeillA desistance paradigm for offender management relationships between objective changes in the offenders life and his or her inbred assessment of the value or signi? cance of these changes . . . the desistance literature has pointed to a range of chemical elements associated with the ending of active involvement in offending. Most of these factors are related to acquiring something (most commonly employment, a life partner or a family) which the desister values in some way and which initiates a reevaluation of his or her own life . . (Farrall, 2002 11) 47 Thus, desistance resides someplace in the interfaces between developing personal maturity, changing social bonds associated with certain life transitions, and the individual subjective narrative constructions which offenders build around these nominate events and changes. It is not just the events and changes that matter it is what these events and changes mean to the people elusive. clear this understanding implies that desistance itself is not an event (like being cured of a disease) but a process.Desistance is necessarily about ceasing offending and then refraining from further offending ove r an extended period (for more detailed discussions see Maruna, 2001 Farrall, 2002 Maruna and Farrall, 2004). Maruna and Farrall (2004) suggest that it is helpful to distinguish primary desistance (the achievement of an offence-free period) from thirdhand desistance (an underlying change in self-identity wherein the ex-offender labels him or herself as such). Although Bottoms et al. 2004) have raised some doubts about the value of this distinction on the grounds that it may exaggerate the importance of cognitive changes which need not always accompany desistance, it does seem likely that where offender managers are dealing with (formerly) persistent offenders, the distinction may be useful indeed, in those kinds of cases their role might be constructed as prompting, reenforcement and sustaining secondary desistance wherever this is possible.Moreover, further empirical support for the notion of secondary desistance (and its usefulness) might be found in Burnetts (1992) field of ef forts to desist among 130 adult spot offenders released from custody. Burnett noted that while eight out of ten, when interviewed pre-release, wanted to go straight six out of ten subsequently reported re-offending post-release. For many, the intention to be law-abiding was provisional in the sense that it did not represent a con? dent prediction only one in four reported that they would de? itely be able to desist. Importantly, Burnett discovered that those who were most con? dent and optimistic about desisting had greatest success in doing so. For the others, the provisional nature of intentions re? ected social dif? culties and personal problems that the men faced (Burnett, 2000 14). That this implies the need for intentions to desist to be grounded in changes of identity is perhaps supported by Burnetts ? ndings about different types of desisters. She discerned three 48Criminology & Criminal Justice 6(1) categories non-starters who adamantly denied that they were real criminals and, in fact, had fewer previous convictions than the others avoiders, for whom keeping out of prison was the signalize issue and converts who appeared to have decided that the costs of crime outweighed the bene? ts. Indeed, the converts were the most resolute and certain among the desisters. They had found new interests that were all-preoccupying and overturned their value system a partner, a child, a effective job, a new vocation.These were attainments that they were not prepared to jeopardize or which over-rode any interest in or need for property crime. (Burnett, 2000 14) Although Burnett notes that, for most of the men involved in her study, processes of desistance were characterized by ambivalence and vacillation, the over-turning of value systems and all pre-occupying new interests that characterized the converts seem to imply the kind of identity changes invoked in the notion of secondary desistance.Marunas (2001) study offers a particularly important contribution to unde rstanding secondary desistance by exploring the subjective dimensions of change. Maruna compared the narrative scripts of 20 persisters and 30 desisters who officed similar criminogenic traits and backgrounds and who lived in similarly criminogenic environments. In the condemnation script that emerged from the persisters, The condemned person is the cashier (although he or she militia plenty of blame for society as well). Active offenders . . . argely saw their life scripts as having been written for them a long time ago (Maruna, 2001 75). By contrast, the accounts of the desisters revealed a different narrative The redemption script begins by establishing the trueness and conventionality of the fibbera victim of society who gets involved with crime and drugs to achieve some sort of power over otherwise bleak circumstances. This deviance eventually becomes its own trap, however, as the narrator becomes ensnared in the vicious cycle of crime and imprisonment.Yet, with the help of some outside force, someone who believed in the ex-offender, the narrator is able to accomplish what he or she was always meant to do. Newly empowered, he or she now seeks to give something back to society as a display of gratitude. (Maruna, 2001 87) The desisters and the persisters shared the same sense of fatalism in their accounts of the development of their criminal careers however, Maruna reads the minimization of responsibility implied by this fatalism as evidence of the conventionality of their values and aspirations and of their need to believe in the essential goodness of the real me.Moreover, in their accounts of achieving change there is evidence that desisters have to discover internal representation in order to resist and overcome the criminogenic structural pressures that play upon them. This discovery of internal representation seems to McNeillA desistance paradigm for offender management relate to the role of signi? cant others in envisioning an alternative iden tity and an alternative future for the offender even through periods when they cannot see these possibilities for themselves.Typically later in the process of change, involvement in generative activities (which usually make a contribution to the well-being of others) plays a part in testifying to the desister that an alternative agentic identity is being or has been forged. Intriguingly, the process of discovering agency, on one level at least, sheds interesting light on the apparent theoretical inconsistency that Bottoms and McWilliams (1979) inferred from the treatment paradigm that is, an inconsistency between its deterministic analysis of the causes of criminality and its focus on self-determination in the treatment process.Arguably what Maruna (2001) has revealed is the role of re? exivity in both revealing and producing shifts in the dynamic relationships between agency and structure (see also Farrall and Bowling, 1999). back up desistance The implications for practice of thi s developing evidence base have begun to be explored in a small bend of research studies that have focused on the role that probation may play in supporting desistance (for utilization Rex, 1999 Farrall, 2002 McCulloch, 2005). In one study of assisted desistance, Rex (1999) explored the experiences of 60 probationers.She found that those who attributed changes in their behaviour to probation supervision described it as active and participatory. Probationers commitments to desist appeared to be generated by the personal and professional commitment shown by their probation of? cers, whose reasonableness, pallidity and encouragement seemed to engender a sense of personal loyalty and accountability. Probationers interpreted advice about their behaviours and underlying problems as evidence of concern for them as people, and were motivated by what they saw as a display of interest in their wellbeing (Rex, 1999 375).Such evidence resonates with other arguments about the pivotal role tha t relationships play in effective interventions (Barry, 2000 Burnett, 2004 Burnett and McNeill, 2005 McNeill et al. , 2005). If secondary desistance (for those involved in persistent offending at least) requires a narrative reconstruction of identity, then it seems obvious why the relational aspects of practice are so signi? cant. Who would risk engaging in such a precarious and threatening venture without the reassurance of sustained and compassionate support from a trusted denotation?However, workers and working relationships are neither the only nor the most important resources in promoting desistance. Related studies of young people in trouble suggest that their own resources and social networks are often better at closure their dif? culties than professional staff (Hill, 1999). The potential of social networks is highlighted by resilience perspectives, which, in contrast with approaches that dwell on risks and/or needs, consider the protective factors and processes involved i n positive adaptation in spite of adversity.In footing of practice with young 49 50 Criminology & Criminal Justice 6(1) people, such perspectives entail an emphasis on the recognition, exploitation and development of their competences, resources, skills and assets (Schoon and Bynner, 2003). In similar vein, but in relation to re-entry of ex-prisoners to society, Maruna and LeBel (2003) have made a convincing case for the development of strengths-based (rather than needs-based or risk-based) narratives and approaches.Drawing on both psychological and criminological evidence, they argue that such approaches would be likely both to enhance residence with parole conditions and to encourage exprisoners to achieve earned redemption (Bazemore, 1999) by focusing on the positive contributions through which they might make good to their communities. Thus promoting desistance also means striving to develop the offenders strengthsat both an individual and a social network levelin order to bui ld and sustain the momentum for change.In looking towards these personal and social contexts of desistance, the most recent and perhaps most wide-scale study of probation and desistance is particularly pertinent to the development of a desistance paradigm. Farrall (2002) explored the kick upstairs or lack of progress towards desistance achieved by a group of 199 probationers. Though over half of the strain evidenced progress towards desistance, Farrall found that desistance could be attributed to speci? c interventions by the probation of? cer in only a few cases, although help with ? ding work and mending damaged family relationships appeared particularly important. Desistance seemed to relate more clearly to the probationers motivations and to the social and personal contexts in which various obstacles to desistance were addressed. Farrall (2002) goes on to argue that interventions must pay greater concern to the community, social and personal contexts in which they are situate d (see also McCulloch, 2005). After all, social circumstances and relationships with others are both the object of the intervention and the medium through which . . . change can be achieved (Farrall, 2002 212, emphases added).Necessarily, this requires that interventions be focused not solely on the individual person and his or her perceived de? cits. As Farrall (2002) notes, the problem with such interventions is that while they can build human capital, for example, in footing of enhanced cognitive skills or modify employability, they cannot generate the social capital that resides in the relationships through which we achieve participation and inclusion in society. 6 Vitally, it is social capital that is necessary to encourage desistance. It is not enough to build capacities for change where change depends on opportunities to exercise capacities . . the process of desistance is one that is produced through an interplay between individual choices, and a range of wider social forc es, institutional and societal practices which are beyond the control of the individual (Farrall and Bowling, 1999 261). Barrys (2004) recent study provides another key reference point for exploring how themes of capital, agency, identity and transition play out speci? cally for younger people desisting from offending. Through in-depth interviews with 20 young women and 20 young men, Barry explored why they started and stopped offending and what in? enced or inhibited them McNeillA desistance paradigm for offender management in that behaviour as they grew older. The young people revealed that their decisions about offending and desisting were related to their need to feel included in their social world, through friendships in childhood and through wider commitments in adulthood. The resolve displayed by the young people in desisting from offending seemed remarkable to Barry, particularly given that they were from disadvantaged backgrounds and were limited in their advance to mainst ream pportunities (employment, housing and social status) both because of their age and because of their social class. Barry recognizes crucially that Because of their transitional situation, many young people lack the status and opportunities of full citizens and thus have limited capacity for social recognition in terms of durable and legitimate means of both accumulating and expenditure capital through taking on responsibility and generativity . . .Accumulation of capital requires, to a certain extent, both responsibilities and access to opportunities however, children and young people rarely have such opportunities because of their status as liminal entities (Turner, 1969), not least those from a working class background. (2004 3289) 51 It is interesting to note that similar messages about the signi? cance both of the relational and of the social contexts of desistance have emerged recently from treatment research itself.Ten years on from McGuire and Priestleys (1995) original statement of what works, these neglected aspects of practice have re-emerged in revisions to and re? nements of the principles of effective practice. One authoritative recent review, for example, highlights the increasing attention that is being paid to the need for staff to use interpersonal skills, to exercise some finesse in their interventions, to take diversity among participants into account and to look at how the broader service context can best support effective practice (Raynor, 2004 201).Raynor notes that neglect of these factors may account for some of the dif? culties undergo in England and Wales, for example, in translating the successes of demonstration projects to general practice. He suggests that the preoccupation with group programmes arises from their more standardized application, which, in turn, allows for more doctrinal evaluation than the complex and varied nature of individual practice. However, this pre-occupation (with programmes), ironically perhaps, is undermined by the literature on treatment effectiveness in psychotherapy and counselling arguably the parent discipline of what works.Here, the evidence suggests that the most crucial variables of all in determining treatment outcomeschance factors, external factors and client factors relate to the personal and social contexts of interventions rather than to their contents (Asay and Lambert, 1999). Moreover, in terms of those variables which the therapist can in? uence, it is a occur ? nding that no method of intervention is any more effective than the rest, and, instead, that there are common aspects of each intervention that are responsible for bringing about change (see Hubble et al. , 1999 Bozarth, 2000). These 52Criminology & Criminal Justice 6(1) core conditions for effectivenessempathy and genuineness the establishment of a working alliance and using person-centred, collaborative and client-driven approachesare perhaps familiar to probation staff, but not from earlier revie ws of what works? . 7 With regard to the probation paradigms reviewed earlier, these ? ndings are particularly signi? cant because, condescension the disciplinary location and positivist approaches of these studies, the forms of treatment that they commend seem to be some way take away from those criticized by Bottoms and McWilliams (1979).Indeed, the notion of therapeutic or working alliance implies, as Bottoms and McWilliams (1979) advocated, that the worker and client share agreement on overall goals, agreement on the tasks that will lead to achievement of these goals and a bond of mutual respect and trust (Bordin, 1979). This seems explicitly to preclude the kind of attitudes and practices that Bottoms and McWilliams (1979) associated with treatment and that arguably characterize the prevailing what works paradigm (McNeill, 2004b). Ethical arguments for a desistance paradigmLeaving aside these emerging empirical ? ndings and theoretical issues, desistance research has some cle ar ethical implications for the practice of offender management. The ? rst of these implications is perhaps already obvious. Rexs (1999) research, reviewed in the context both of Marunas (2001) account of narrative reconstruction and of the evidence from psychotherapy research about the critical signi? cance of certain core conditions for treatment, points to the importance of developing penal practices that express certain practical virtues.Virtue-based approaches to ethics have experienced something of a resurgence in recent years (Pence, 1991), suggesting a shift in moral thinking from the question what ought I to do? to the question what sort of person should I be? In this context, one of the merits of desistance research is that by asking offenders about their experiences both of attempting desistance and of supervision, progress is made towards answering the question that a would-be virtuous offender manager might ask What sort of practitioner should I be?The virtues feature d in responses from desisters might include optimism, hopefulness, patience, persistence, fairness, respectfulness, trustworthiness, loyalty, wisdom, compassion, ? exibility and sensitivity (to difference), for example. The practical import of the expression of these virtues is suggested by recent discussions of the enforcement of community penalties, which have emerged particularly (but not exclusively) where community penalties have been recast as punishment in the community. This recasting of purpose has increased the need for effective enforcement in order that courts regard community penalties as credible disposals.Though the language of enforcement implies an emphasis on ensuring the meaningfulness and inevitability of sanctions in the event of non-compliance, Bottoms (2001) has argued convincingly that attempts to encourage or require compliance in McNeillA desistance paradigm for offender management the criminal justice system must creatively mix habitual mechanisms, constra int-based mechanisms, instrumental mechanisms and normative mechanisms (related to beliefs, attachments and perceptions of legitimacy).What seems clear from the desistance research is that, through the establishment of effective relationships, the workers role in supporting compliance is likely to be particularly crucial to the development of these normative mechanisms. It is only within relationships that model the kinds of virtues described above that the bollock authority conferred on the worker by the court is likely to be rendered legitimate in the spirit of the offender. Just as perceptions of legitimacy play a key role in encouraging compliance with prison regimes (Sparks et al. 1996), so in the community legitimacy is likely to be a crucial factor both in preventing breach by persuading offenders to comply with the order and, perhaps, in preventing recidivism by persuading offenders to comply with the law. This notion of moral persuasion (and modelling) as a role for offen der managers resonates with some aspects of Anthony Duffs penal communications theory (Duff, 2001, 2003). Duff (2003) has argued that probation can and should be considered a mode of punishment indeed he argues that it could be the model punishment.However, the notion of punishment that he advances is not merely punitive that is, it is not implicated simply with the in? iction of pain as a form of retribution. Rather it is a form of creative punishment that in? icts pain only in so far as this is an inevitable (and intended) consequence of bringing offenders to face up to the effects and implications of their crimes, to rehabilitate them and to secure . . . reparation and reconciliation (Duff, 2003 181). The pains involved are akin to the unavoidable pains of repentance.For Duff, this implies a role for probation staff as mediators between offenders, victims and the wider community. Though developing the connections between Duffs theory and desistance research is beyond the scope of this article, Marunas (2001) study underlines the signi? cance for desisters of the redemption that is often achieved through engagement in generative activities which help to make sense of a damaged past by using it to protect the future interests of others. It seems signi? ant that this buying back is tillable rather than cataclysmal that is, the right to be rehabilitated is not the harvest-time of experiencing the pains of merely punitive punishment, rather it is the result of evidencing repentance and change by making good. In working to support the reconstruction of identity involved in desistance, this seems to underline the relevance of the redemptive opportunities that both community penalties and restorative justice approaches might offer.No less obvious, by contrast, are the futility and counter-productiveness of penal measures that label, that exclude and that segregate and co-locate offenders as offenders. Such measures seem designed to con? rm and cement condemnat ion scripts and thus to frustrate desistance. However, as well as set off the importance of encouraging and supporting offenders in the painful process of making good, the desistance 53 54 Criminology & Criminal Justice 6(1) research at least hints at the reciprocal need for society to make good to offenders.Just as both Bottoms and McWilliams (1979) and Raynor and Vanstone (1994) recognized the moral implications of accepting the role that social inequalities and immoralitys play in arouse offending behaviour, so Duff (2003) argues that the existence of social injustice creates moral problems for the punishing polity. The response must be a genuine and visible attempt to remedy the injustices and exclusion that they that is, some offenders have suffered (Duff, 2003 194). Duff suggests that this implies that the probation of? cer . . . ill now have to help the offender negotiate his relationship with the polity against which he has offended, but by whom he has been treated unjust ly and disrespectfully she must speak for the polity to the offender in terms that are censorious but also apologeticterms that seek both to bring him to recognise the wrong he has done and to express an apologetic recognition of the injustice he has suffered and she must speak to the polity for the offender, explaining what is due to him as well as what is due for him. (2003 194, emphasis added)Thus the help and practical support advocated in the non-treatment paradigm can now be re-legitimated both empirically, in terms of the need to build social capital in supporting desistance, and normatively (even within a punishment discourse) as a prerequisite for making punishment both intelligible and just for offenders. cognition of interactions between, on the one hand, exclusion and inequalities and, on the other, crime and justice, also lies behind some of the arguments for rehabilitative approaches to punishment. Such arguments tend to lead to rights-based rather than utilitarian ve rsions of rehabilitation.For McWilliams and Pease (1990), rights-based rehabilitation serves a moral purpose on behalf of society in constricting punishment and preventing exclusion by working to re-establish the rights and the social standing of the offender. By contrast, Garland (1997) describes how, in late-modern penality, a more instrumental version of rehabilitation has emerged in which the offender need not (perhaps cannot) be respected as an end in himself or herself he or she has become the means to another end. He or she is not, in a sense, the subject of the court order, but its object.In this version, rehabilitation is not an over-riding purpose, it is a coadjutor means. It is offence-centred rather than offender-centred it targets criminogenic need rather than social need. The problem with this version of rehabilitation, however, is that it runs all the same moral risks that led Bottoms and McWilliams (1979) to reject treatment it permits, in theory at least, all of t he same injustices, violations of human rights and disproportionate intrusions that concern, for example, the American Friends Services Committee in 1971, and led ultimately to the emergence of just deserts (von Hirsch, 1976 Home Of? e, 1990). Indeed, in England and Wales, the current situation is worse in one respect McNeillA desistance paradigm for offender management the removal of the need for offenders consent to the imposition of community penalties (under the Crime (Sentences) Act 1997), which made some sense in the context of the move towards seeing probation as a proportionate punishment, means that offenders can now be compelled to undertake treatment in the form of accredited programmes.In a recent article, Lewis (2005) has drawn on the work of the new rehabilitationists (Cullen and Gilbert, 1982 Rotman, 1990) to revive the case for a rights-based approach to rehabilitation meaning one which is touch with the reintegration of offenders into society as useful human being s. According to Lewis, the principles of the new rehabilitationists include commitment to, ? rst, the states duty to undertake rehabilitative work (for similar reasons to those outlined above) second, somehow setting limits on the intrusions of rehabilitation in terms of proportionality third, maximizing voluntarism in the process and, ? ally, using prison only as a measure of last resort because of its negative and damaging effects. In exploring the extent to which these principles are articulated and applied in current penal policy, she reaches the conclusion that current rehabilitative efforts are window-dressing on an excessively punitive managerialist system (Lewis, 2005 119), though she retains some hope that practitioner-led initiatives at the local level might allow some prospect that these principles could be applied.The value of the desistance research may be that just as the evidence about nothing works allowed Bottoms and McWilliams (1979) to make a theoretical and empi rical case for more ethical practice, and the evidence that something works enabled Raynor and Vanstone (1994) to revise that case, so the evidence from desistance studies, when combined with these constructive developments in the philosophy of punishment, might do a similar job in a different and arguably more destructive penal climate. 55 Conclusions a desistance paradigmThis article has sought to follow the example offered by Bottoms and McWilliams (1979) and Raynor and Vanstone (1994) by difficult to build both empirical and ethical cases for the development of a new paradigm for probation practice. In summary, I have suggested that desistance is the process that offender management exists to promote and support that approaches to intervention should be embedded in understandings of desistance and, that it is important to explore the connections between structure, agency, re? exivity and identity in desistance processes. Moreover, desistance-supporting interventions need to res pect and foster agency and re? xivity they need to be based on legitimate and respectful relationships they need to focus on social capital (opportunities) as well as human capital (motivations and capacities) and they need to exploit strengths as well as addressing needs and risks. I have also suggested that desistance research highlights the relevance of certain practice virtues that it requires a focus 56 Criminology & Criminal Justice 6(1) on the role of legitimacy in supporting normative mechanisms of compliance that it is consonant in many respects with communicative approaches to punishment which cast probation of? ers (or offender managers) as mediators between offenders, victims and communities and that it suggests a rights-based approach to rehabilitation which entails both that the offender makes good to society and that, where injustice has been suffered by the offender, society makes good to the offender. Like the authors of the earlier paradigms, I do not intend here t o offer a detailed account of precisely how a desistance paradigm might operate in practice (for some initial suggestions see McNeill, 2003). That task is one that could be more fruitfully undertaken by those working in the ? ld, preferably in association with offenders themselves. However, in an attempt to suggest some direction for such development, Table 1 summarizes the contrasts between the constructions of practice implied by the nontreatment, revised, what works and desistance paradigms. Unlike the earlier paradigms, the desistance paradigm forefronts processes of change rather than modes of intervention. Practice under the desistance paradigm would certainly accommodate intervention to meet needs, reduce risks and (especially) to develop and exploit strengths, but Table 1.Probation practice in four paradigms The non-treatment paradigm Treatment becomes help The revised paradigm Help consistent with a commitment to the reduction of harm A what works paradigm Intervention req uired to reduce re-offending and protect the public A desistance paradigm Help in navigating towards desistance to reduce harm and make good to offenders and victims8 Explicit dialogue and negotiation assessing risks, needs, strengths and resources and offering opportunities to make good Collaboratively de? ed tasks which tackle risks, needs and obstacles to desistance by using and developing the offenders human and social capital Diagnoses becomes shared assessment Explicit dialogue and negotiation offering opportunities for consensual change superior assessment of risk and need governed by structured assessment instruments Clients dependent need as the basis for action becomes collaboratively de? ned task as the basis for action Collaboratively de? ed task relevant to criminogenic needs and potentially effective in meeting them Compulsory engagement in structured programmes and case management processes as required elements of legal orders imposed irrespective of consent McNeillA desistance paradigm for offender management whatever these forms might be they would be subordinated to a more broadly conceived role in working out, on an individual basis, how the desistance process might best be prompted and supported.This would require the worker to act as an advocate providing a conduit to social capital as well as a treatment provider building human capital. Moreover, rather than being about the technical management of programmes and the disciplinary management of orders, as the current term offender manager unhelpfully implies, the forms of engagement required by the paradigm would re-instate and place a high premium on collaboration and involvement in the process of co-designing interventions.Critically, such interventions would not be concerned solely with the prevention of further offending they would be equally concerned with constructively addressing the harms caused by crime by encouraging offenders to make good through restorative processes and commun ity service (in the broadest sense). But, as a morally and practically necessary corollary, they would be no less listless with making good to offenders by enabling them to achieve inclusion and participation in society (and with it the continuous tense and positive reframing of their identities required to sustain desistance).Perhaps the most obvious problem that might be confronted by anyone pursuance to envision further or even enact this paradigm, is that the communities on which its ultimate success would depend may lack the resources and the will to engage in supporting desistance, preferring to remain merely punishing communities (Worrall and Hoy, 2005). This is, of course, an issue for any form of offender management or reintegration.However, rather than letting it become an excuse for dismissing the paradigm, it should drive us to a recognition of the need for offender management agencies to re-engage with community education and community involvement and to seek ways an d means, at the local level and at the national level, to challenge populist punitiveness (Bottoms, 1995) and to offer more progressive alternatives. 57 NotesI am very grateful to Steve Farrall and Richard Sparks for their hospitality in hosting the seminars through which this article was developed and to all of the contributors to the seminars both for their helpful and encouraging comments on earlier versions and for the stimulation that their papers provided. I am also grateful to Monica Barry, microphone Nellis and Gwen Robinson for comments on the draft version of this article. Though I have itch reservations about the term offender management (relating to its obvious inference that the offender is a problem to be managed rather than person to be assisted and that the task is technical rather than moral), I use it here, not just because of its contemporary relevance, but also because it refers both to community disposals and postprison resettlement. 8 Criminology & Criminal Ju stice 6(1) 2 Owing to their pessimism about the prospects for treatment delivering their fourth aim (the reduction of crime), Bottoms and McWilliams turned their attention to other crime reduction strategies and in particular to crime prevention. Their argument in this connection was essentially that because crime is preponderantly social . . . ny serious crime reduction strategy must be of a socially (rather than an individually) based character (Bottoms and McWilliams, 1979 188). 3 That said, they allowed that there is, ironically, at least a tiny shred of research evidence to suggest that, after all, help may be more crime-reducing than treatment (Bottoms and McWilliams, 1979 174). To support this claim they referred to two studies that presaged later desistance research the ? st suggested that although intensive casework treatment had no apparent impact, changes in the post-institutional social situations of offenders (for example, getting espouse or securing a job) were associ ated with reductions in recidivism (Bottoms and McClintock, 1973) the second suggested that treatment did demonstrate lower reconviction rates where the treatment involved primarily practical help which was given only if and when offenders asked for it (Bernsten and Christiansen, 1965). 4 This section of the article draws heavily on McNeill et al. (2005). 5 It may be that this gap in theory s in part the product of the incremental and quasi-experimental character of what works research indeed it might even be said that the what works philosophy is anti-theoretical in that it is more preoccupied with identifying and replicating successes than in explaining and understanding them (Farrall, 2002). 6 Signi? cantly, Boeck et al. s (2004) emerging ? ndings suggest that bridging social capital in particular (which facilitates social mobility) seems to be limited among those young people in their study involved in offending, leaving them ill-equipped to navigate risk successfully. That said , some recent studies have begun to explore the contribution of particular practice skills to effectiveness. Raynor refers in particular to a recent article by Dowden and Andrews (2004) based on a meta-analysis examining the contribution of certain key staff skills (which they term core correctional practices or CCPs) to the effectiveness of interventions with offenders. 8 It is with some unease that I have merely mentioned but not developed arguments about the importance of making good to (and for) victims in this article.I am therefore grateful to Mike Nellis for highlighting the contingent relationships between offenders making good and making amends to victims. There is little empirical evidence that desistance requires making amends or making good to particular victims, although there are of course independent and compelling reasons why this matters in its own right. As Nellis suggests (personal communication, 18 August 2005), the case for making amends requires separate justi? cation. He further suggests that from the point of view of interventions with offenders, it may be important not so much as an enabling factor in desistance as a signifying factor.Drawing on this distinction, my own view is that although making amends is neither necessary nor suf? cient for desistance to occur, it may be useful none the less in consigning the past to the past (for victims and offenders) and thus in entrenching redemption scripts (for offenders). McNeillA desistance paradigm for offender management References American Friends Services Committee (1971) Struggle for Justice. New York Hill & Wang. Asay, T. P. and M. J. Lambert (1999) The Empirical Case for the leafy vegetable Factors in Therapy Quantitative Findings, in M. A. Hubble, B. L. Duncan and S. D.Miller (eds) The Heart and Soul of Change What Works in Therapy, pp. 3356. Washington, DC American Psychological Association. 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